mlsanityData to 13 Oct 2026

Gaussian Splatting SLAM

arXiv 2312.06741 ↗First posted 11 Dec 2023cs.CV cs.ROcited by 410

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Abstract (arXiv)

We present the first application of 3D Gaussian Splatting in monocular SLAM, the most fundamental but the hardest setup for Visual SLAM. Our method, which runs live at 3fps, utilises Gaussians as the only 3D representation, unifying the required representation for accurate, efficient tracking, mapping, and high-quality rendering. Designed for challenging monocular settings, our approach is seamlessly extendable to RGB-D SLAM when an external depth sensor is available. Several innovations are required to continuously reconstruct 3D scenes with high fidelity from a live camera. First, to move beyond the original 3DGS algorithm, which requires accurate poses from an offline Structure from Motion (SfM) system, we formulate camera tracking for 3DGS using direct optimisation against the 3D Gaussians, and show that this enables fast and robust tracking with a wide basin of convergence. Second, by utilising the explicit nature of the Gaussians, we introduce geometric verification and regularisation to handle the ambiguities occurring in incremental 3D dense reconstruction. Finally, we introduce a full SLAM system which not only achieves state-of-the-art results in novel view synthesis and trajectory estimation but also reconstruction of tiny and even transparent objects.

Key facts. Cited by 410 papers in the map (data through 13 Oct 2026). Builds on 34 of its 51 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 11 Dec 2023.

Builds on

34 of 51 references.

References · 34

  1. 20233D Gaussian Splatting for Real-Time Radiance Field Renderingcited by 6,170
  2. 2022Instant Neural Graphics Primitives with a Multiresolution Hash Encodingcited by 3,712
  3. 2021Plenoxels: Radiance Fields without Neural Networkscited by 1,610
  4. 20234D Gaussian Splatting for Real-Time Dynamic Scene Renderingcited by 1,150
  5. 2015ORB-SLAM: a Versatile and Accurate Monocular SLAM Systemcited by 984
  6. 2021Direct Voxel Grid Optimization: Super-fast Convergence for Radiance Fields Reconstructioncited by 962
  7. 2020Neural Sparse Voxel Fieldscited by 959
  8. 2019The Replica Dataset: A Digital Replica of Indoor Spacescited by 895
  9. 2020ORB-SLAM3: An Accurate Open-Source Library for Visual, Visual-Inertial and Multi-Map SLAMcited by 866
  10. 2023DreamGaussian: Generative Gaussian Splatting for Efficient 3D Content Creationcited by 839
  11. 2016ORB-SLAM2: an Open-Source SLAM System for Monocular, Stereo and RGB-D Camerascited by 803
  12. 2023Dynamic 3D Gaussians: Tracking by Persistent Dynamic View Synthesiscited by 735
22 more
  1. 2019Differentiable Volumetric Rendering: Learning Implicit 3D Representations without 3D Supervisioncited by 699
  2. 2021DROID-SLAM: Deep Visual SLAM for Monocular, Stereo, and RGB-D Camerascited by 676
  3. 2021NICE-SLAM: Neural Implicit Scalable Encoding for SLAMcited by 588
  4. 2016Direct Sparse Odometrycited by 480
  5. 2021iMAP: Implicit Mapping and Positioning in Real-Timecited by 476
  6. 2023Real-time Photorealistic Dynamic Scene Representation and Rendering with 4D Gaussian Splattingcited by 474
  7. 2023Co-SLAM: Joint Coordinate and Sparse Parametric Encodings for Neural Real-Time SLAMcited by 183
  8. 2023NICER-SLAM: Neural Implicit Scene Encoding for RGB SLAMcited by 163
  9. 2023Point-SLAM: Dense Neural Point Cloud-based SLAMcited by 160
  10. 2022ESLAM: Efficient Dense SLAM System Based on Hybrid Representation of Signed Distance Fieldscited by 158
  11. 2022Vox-Fusion: Dense Tracking and Mapping with Voxel-based Neural Implicit Representationcited by 149
  12. 2016SemanticFusion: Dense 3D Semantic Mapping with Convolutional Neural Networkscited by 134
  13. 2018A micro Lie theory for state estimation in roboticscited by 120
  14. 2020DeepFactors: Real-Time Probabilistic Dense Monocular SLAMcited by 117
  15. 2020DI-Fusion: Online Implicit 3D Reconstruction with Deep Priorscited by 70
  16. 2019A General Optimization-based Framework for Local Odometry Estimation with Multiple Sensorscited by 44
  17. 2022Approximate Differentiable Rendering with Algebraic Surfacescited by 44
  18. 2023Dense RGB SLAM with Neural Implicit Mapscited by 42
  19. 2018SurfelMeshing: Online Surfel-Based Mesh Reconstructioncited by 29
  20. 2022VoGE: A Differentiable Volume Renderer using Gaussian Ellipsoids for Analysis-by-Synthesiscited by 22
  21. 2023Learning a Depth Covariance Functioncited by 16
  22. 2014A Framework for the Volumetric Integration of Depth Imagescited by 4

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Cited by year (2026 to 13 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2023: 1; 2024: 124; 2025: 166; 2026: 119.

410 papers.

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  1. 2024PGSR: Planar-based Gaussian Splatting for Efficient and High-Fidelity Surface Reconstructioncited by 283
  2. 20243D Reconstruction with Spatial Memorycited by 271
  3. 2024No Pose, No Problem: Surprisingly Simple 3D Gaussian Splats from Sparse Unposed Imagescited by 243
  4. 2024A Survey on 3D Gaussian Splattingcited by 222
  5. 2024MASt3R-SLAM: Real-Time Dense SLAM with 3D Reconstruction Priorscited by 200
  6. 2025MUSt3R: Multi-view Network for Stereo 3D Reconstructioncited by 139
  7. 2025VGGT-SLAM: Dense RGB SLAM Optimized on the SL(4) Manifoldcited by 132
  8. 2024Recent Advances in 3D Gaussian Splattingcited by 130
  9. 2024Revising Densification in Gaussian Splattingcited by 128
  10. 2024RadSplat: Radiance Field-Informed Gaussian Splatting for Robust Real-Time Rendering with 900+ FPScited by 112
  11. 20243D Gaussian as a New Era: A Surveycited by 103
  12. 2024SLAM3R: Real-Time Dense Scene Reconstruction from Monocular RGB Videoscited by 101
38 more
  1. 2024GaussianFlow: Splatting Gaussian Dynamics for 4D Content Creationcited by 100
  2. 2024SGS-SLAM: Semantic Gaussian Splatting For Neural Dense SLAMcited by 86
  3. 20243D Gaussian Splatting: Survey, Technologies, Challenges, and Opportunitiescited by 77
  4. 2024Large Spatial Model: End-to-end Unposed Images to Semantic 3Dcited by 73
  5. 2024How NeRFs and 3D Gaussian Splatting are Reshaping SLAM: a Surveycited by 72
  6. 2024MagicDrive3D: Controllable 3D Generation for Any-View Rendering in Street Scenescited by 71
  7. 2024RGBD GS-ICP SLAMcited by 65
  8. 2024Splat-SLAM: Globally Optimized RGB-only SLAM with 3D Gaussianscited by 64
  9. 2024MotionGS: Exploring Explicit Motion Guidance for Deformable 3D Gaussian Splattingcited by 62
  10. 2024FlowMap: High-Quality Camera Poses, Intrinsics, and Depth via Gradient Descentcited by 61
  11. 2024LoopSplat: Loop Closure by Registering 3D Gaussian Splatscited by 59
  12. 2024Radiative Gaussian Splatting for Efficient X-ray Novel View Synthesiscited by 57
  13. 2024RoboGSim: A Real2Sim2Real Robotic Gaussian Splatting Simulatorcited by 51
  14. 2024GaussNav: Gaussian Splatting for Visual Navigationcited by 49
  15. 2025WildGS-SLAM: Monocular Gaussian Splatting SLAM in Dynamic Environmentscited by 48
  16. 2024EgoLifter: Open-world 3D Segmentation for Egocentric Perceptioncited by 47
  17. 2025NavDP: Learning Sim-to-Real Navigation Diffusion Policy with Privileged Information Guidancecited by 46
  18. 2024SemGauss-SLAM: Dense Semantic Gaussian Splatting SLAMcited by 41
  19. 2024Gaussian Splatting: 3D Reconstruction and Novel View Synthesis, a Reviewcited by 41
  20. 2024On the Error Analysis of 3D Gaussian Splatting and an Optimal Projection Strategycited by 39
  21. 2024GlORIE-SLAM: Globally Optimized RGB-only Implicit Encoding Point Cloud SLAMcited by 36
  22. 2024R+X: Retrieval and Execution from Everyday Human Videoscited by 36
  23. 2024HDR-GS: Efficient High Dynamic Range Novel View Synthesis at 1000x Speed via Gaussian Splattingcited by 35
  24. 2024ActiveSplat: High-Fidelity Scene Reconstruction through Active Gaussian Splattingcited by 32
  25. 2024DynaMem: Online Dynamic Spatio-Semantic Memory for Open World Mobile Manipulationcited by 32
  26. 2024Baking Gaussian Splatting into Diffusion Denoiser for Fast and Scalable Single-stage Image-to-3D Generation and Reconstructioncited by 32
  27. 2025What Is The Best 3D Scene Representation for Robotics? From Geometric to Foundation Modelscited by 29
  28. 2024GS-Hider: Hiding Messages into 3D Gaussian Splattingcited by 26
  29. 2024NerfBaselines: Consistent and Reproducible Evaluation of Novel View Synthesis Methodscited by 25
  30. 2024LM-Gaussian: Boost Sparse-view 3D Gaussian Splatting with Large Model Priorscited by 25
  31. 2024Compact 3D Gaussian Splatting For Dense Visual SLAMcited by 24
  32. 2024HI-SLAM2: Geometry-Aware Gaussian SLAM for Fast Monocular Scene Reconstructioncited by 24
  33. 2025Lifting by Gaussians: A Simple, Fast and Flexible Method for 3D Instance Segmentationcited by 23
  34. 2024MM3DGS SLAM: Multi-modal 3D Gaussian Splatting for SLAM Using Vision, Depth, and Inertial Measurementscited by 22
  35. 2024Event3DGS: Event-Based 3D Gaussian Splatting for High-Speed Robot Egomotioncited by 22
  36. 2024Beyond Gaussians: Fast and High-Fidelity 3D Splatting with Linear Kernelscited by 22
  37. 2024OmniGS: Fast Radiance Field Reconstruction using Omnidirectional Gaussian Splattingcited by 21
  38. 2024Neural Fields in Robotics: A Surveycited by 21

50 most cited of 410 All 410 (JSON)