VR-NeRF: High-Fidelity Virtualized Walkable Spaces
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Abstract (arXiv)
We present an end-to-end system for the high-fidelity capture, model reconstruction, and real-time rendering of walkable spaces in virtual reality using neural radiance fields. To this end, we designed and built a custom multi-camera rig to densely capture walkable spaces in high fidelity and with multi-view high dynamic range images in unprecedented quality and density. We extend instant neural graphics primitives with a novel perceptual color space for learning accurate HDR appearance, and an efficient mip-mapping mechanism for level-of-detail rendering with anti-aliasing, while carefully optimizing the trade-off between quality and speed. Our multi-GPU renderer enables high-fidelity volume rendering of our neural radiance field model at the full VR resolution of dual 2K×2K at 36 Hz on our custom demo machine. We demonstrate the quality of our results on our challenging high-fidelity datasets, and compare our method and datasets to existing baselines. We release our dataset on our project website.
Key facts. Cited by 86 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 31 of its 66 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 5 Nov 2023.
Builds on
31 of 66 references.
References · 31
- 2014Adam: A Method for Stochastic Optimizationcited by 36,960
- 2022Instant Neural Graphics Primitives with a Multiresolution Hash Encodingcited by 3,698
- 2021Mip-NeRF: A Multiscale Representation for Anti-Aliasing Neural Radiance Fieldscited by 1,957
- 2022TensoRF: Tensorial Radiance Fieldscited by 1,275
- 2020Nerfies: Deformable Neural Radiance Fieldscited by 1,194
- 2021Direct Voxel Grid Optimization: Super-fast Convergence for Radiance Fields Reconstructioncited by 961
- 2020Neural Sparse Voxel Fieldscited by 959
- 2022Block-NeRF: Scalable Large Scene Neural View Synthesiscited by 720
- 2021BARF: Bundle-Adjusting Neural Radiance Fieldscited by 641
- 2023Neuralangelo: High-Fidelity Neural Surface Reconstructioncited by 464
- 2021Neural Geometric Level of Detail: Real-time Rendering with Implicit 3D Shapescited by 426
- 2021Mega-NeRF: Scalable Construction of Large-Scale NeRFs for Virtual Fly-Throughscited by 396
19 more
- 2021Advances in Neural Renderingcited by 365
- 2021NeRF in the Dark: High Dynamic Range View Synthesis from Noisy Raw Imagescited by 336
- 2023FreeNeRF: Improving Few-shot Neural Rendering with Free Frequency Regularizationcited by 310
- 2019DeepView: View Synthesis with Learned Gradient Descentcited by 253
- 2021BungeeNeRF: Progressive Neural Radiance Field for Extreme Multi-scale Scene Renderingcited by 228
- 2016Panoptic Studio: A Massively Multiview System for Social Interaction Capturecited by 173
- 2020Novel View Synthesis of Dynamic Scenes with Globally Coherent Depths from a Monocular Cameracited by 166
- 2023F2-NeRF: Fast Neural Radiance Field Training with Free Camera Trajectoriescited by 118
- 2023Progressively Optimized Local Radiance Fields for Robust View Synthesiscited by 103
- 2023Grid-guided Neural Radiance Fields for Large Urban Scenescited by 99
- 2022PermutoSDF: Fast Multi-View Reconstruction with Implicit Surfaces using Permutohedral Latticescited by 72
- 2021Free-viewpoint Indoor Neural Relighting from Multi-view Stereocited by 50
- 2023I2-SDF: Intrinsic Indoor Scene Reconstruction and Editing via Raytracing in Neural SDFscited by 42
- 2022HDR-Plenoxels: Self-Calibrating High Dynamic Range Radiance Fieldscited by 40
- 2023Efficient Large-scale Scene Representation with a Hybrid of High-resolution Grid and Plane Featurescited by 36
- 2022AligNeRF: High-Fidelity Neural Radiance Fields via Alignment-Aware Trainingcited by 31
- 2023Learning Neural Duplex Radiance Fields for Real-Time View Synthesiscited by 28
- 2018A System for Acquiring, Processing, and Rendering Panoramic Light Field Stills for Virtual Realitycited by 24
- 2020Noise-Aware Merging of High Dynamic Range Image Stacks without Camera Calibrationcited by 8
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Citing papers per year: 2023: 5; 2024: 29; 2025: 38; 2026: 14.
86 papers.
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- 2023Scaffold-GS: Structured 3D Gaussians for View-Adaptive Renderingcited by 684
- 2025AnySplat: Feed-forward 3D Gaussian Splatting from Unconstrained Viewscited by 234
- 2024Octree-GS: Towards Consistent Real-time Rendering with LOD-Structured 3D Gaussianscited by 225
- 2024VR-GS: A Physical Dynamics-Aware Interactive Gaussian Splatting System in Virtual Realitycited by 175
- 2025Difix3D+: Improving 3D Reconstructions with Single-Step Diffusion Modelscited by 160
- 2024GSDF: 3DGS Meets SDF for Improved Rendering and Reconstructioncited by 81
- 2025WorldMirror: Universal 3D World Reconstruction with Any-Prior Promptingcited by 60
- 2024Click-Gaussian: Interactive Segmentation to Any 3D Gaussianscited by 58
- 2024EvaGaussians: Event Stream Assisted Gaussian Splatting from Blurry Imagescited by 56
- 2024SelfSplat: Pose-Free and 3D Prior-Free Generalizable 3D Gaussian Splattingcited by 40
- 2025FastGS: Training 3D Gaussian Splatting in 100 Secondscited by 39
- 2026NeoVerse: Enhancing 4D World Model with in-the-wild Monocular Videoscited by 39
38 more
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- 2023SpecNeRF: Gaussian Directional Encoding for Specular Reflectionscited by 30
- 2024VR-Splatting: Foveated Radiance Field Rendering via 3D Gaussian Splatting and Neural Pointscited by 29
- 2023HybridNeRF: Efficient Neural Rendering via Adaptive Volumetric Surfacescited by 28
- 2024Lighting Every Darkness with 3DGS: Fast Training and Real-Time Rendering for HDR View Synthesiscited by 27
- 2024Video2Game: Real-time, Interactive, Realistic and Browser-Compatible Environment from a Single Videocited by 26
- 2024Real Acoustic Fields: An Audio-Visual Room Acoustics Dataset and Benchmarkcited by 20
- 2024Drone-assisted Road Gaussian Splatting with Cross-view Uncertaintycited by 20
- 2024D-MiSo: Editing Dynamic 3D Scenes using Multi-Gaussians Soupcited by 18
- 2025VRSplat: Fast and Robust Gaussian Splatting for Virtual Realitycited by 17
- 2025MonoSplat: Generalizable 3D Gaussian Splatting from Monocular Depth Foundation Modelscited by 15
- 2025DiET-GS: Diffusion Prior and Event Stream-Assisted Motion Deblurring 3D Gaussian Splattingcited by 14
- 2025Neural Radiance Fields for the Real World: A Surveycited by 12
- 2024D-NPC: Dynamic Neural Point Clouds for Non-Rigid View Synthesis from Monocular Videocited by 11
- 2024Semantics-Controlled Gaussian Splatting for Outdoor Scene Reconstruction and Rendering in Virtual Realitycited by 10
- 2025Self-Calibrating Gaussian Splatting for Large Field of View Reconstructioncited by 10
- 2024NeRAF: 3D Scene Infused Neural Radiance and Acoustic Fieldscited by 8
- 2024Turbo-GS: Accelerating 3D Gaussian Fitting for High-Quality Radiance Fieldscited by 8
- 2025Frequency-Aware Density Control via Reparameterization for High-Quality Rendering of 3D Gaussian Splattingcited by 8
- 2024NeRF as a Non-Distant Environment Emitter in Physics-based Inverse Renderingcited by 7
- 2025GS-Cache: A GS-Cache Inference Framework for Large-scale Gaussian Splatting Modelscited by 7
- 2025FastMap: Revisiting Structure from Motion through First-Order Optimizationcited by 7
- 2026LuxRemix: Lighting Decomposition and Remixing for Indoor Scenescited by 7
- 2025DWTNeRF: Boosting Few-shot Neural Radiance Fields via Discrete Wavelet Transformcited by 6
- 2025HaloGS: Loose Coupling of Compact Geometry and Gaussian Splats for 3D Scenescited by 6
- 2025ARTDECO: Towards Efficient and High-Fidelity On-the-Fly 3D Reconstruction with Structured Scene Representationcited by 6
- 2023SO-NeRF: Active View Planning for NeRF using Surrogate Objectivescited by 5
- 2024GaRField++: Reinforced Gaussian Radiance Fields for Large-Scale 3D Scene Reconstructioncited by 5
- 2025Matrix-free Second-order Optimization of Gaussian Splats with Residual Samplingcited by 5
- 2025Differentiable Room Acoustic Rendering with Multi-View Vision Priorscited by 5
- 2026GR3EN: Generative Relighting for 3D Environmentscited by 5
- 2025Duplex-GS: Proxy-Guided Weighted Blending for Real-Time Order-Independent Gaussian Splattingcited by 4
- 2025Optimized Minimal 4D Gaussian Splattingcited by 4
- 2025Learning Neural Exposure Fields for View Synthesiscited by 4
- 2025Selfi: Self Improving Reconstruction Engine via 3D Geometric Feature Alignmentcited by 4
- 2024E-3DGS: Gaussian Splatting with Exposure and Motion Eventscited by 3
- 2025SoundVista: Novel-View Ambient Sound Synthesis via Visual-Acoustic Bindingcited by 3
- 2026Marginalized Bundle Adjustment: Multi-View Camera Pose from Monocular Depth Estimatescited by 3
50 most cited of 86 All 86 (JSON)
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- 2026Scene-SAM3D: Multi-View Scene Asset Generation Without Fine-Tuning18 Jul 2026
- 2026Recent Advances and Trends in Learning-based 3D Representations3 Jun 2026
- 2026MU-GeNeRF: Multi-view Uncertainty-guided Generalizable Neural Radiance Fields for Distractor-aware Scene20 Apr 2026
- 2026UniQueR: Unified Query-based Feedforward 3D Reconstruction24 Mar 2026
- 2026M^3: Dense Matching Meets Multi-View Foundation Models for Monocular Gaussian Splatting SLAM17 Mar 2026
- 2026Leveling3D: Leveling Up 3D Reconstruction with Feed-Forward 3D Gaussian Splatting and Geometry-Aware Generation17 Mar 2026
- 2026Sky2Ground: A Benchmark for Site Modeling under Varying Altitude14 Mar 2026
- 2026Marginalized Bundle Adjustment: Multi-View Camera Pose from Monocular Depth Estimates21 Feb 2026
- 2026EAG-PT: Emission-Aware Gaussians and Path Tracing for Diffuse Indoor Scene Reconstruction and Editing30 Jan 2026
- 2026PLANING: A Loosely Coupled Triangle-Gaussian Framework for Streaming 3D Reconstruction29 Jan 2026
- 2026GR3EN: Generative Relighting for 3D Environments22 Jan 2026
38 more
- 2026LuxRemix: Lighting Decomposition and Remixing for Indoor Scenes21 Jan 2026
- 2026NeoVerse: Enhancing 4D World Model with in-the-wild Monocular Videos1 Jan 2026
- 2025Robust Multi-view Camera Calibration from Dense Matches17 Dec 2025
- 2025Broadening View Synthesis of Dynamic Scenes from Constrained Monocular Videos16 Dec 2025
- 2025Selfi: Self Improving Reconstruction Engine via 3D Geometric Feature Alignment9 Dec 2025
- 2025SUCCESS-GS: Survey of Compactness and Compression for Efficient Static and Dynamic Gaussian Splatting8 Dec 2025
- 2025Inferring Compositional 4D Scenes without Ever Seeing One4 Dec 2025
- 2025FastGS: Training 3D Gaussian Splatting in 100 Seconds6 Nov 2025
- 2025AegisRF: Adversarial Perturbations Guided with Sensitivity for Protecting Intellectual Property of Neural Radiance Fields22 Oct 2025
- 2025GS-Verse: Mesh-based Gaussian Splatting for Physics-aware Interaction in Virtual Reality13 Oct 2025
- 2025WorldMirror: Universal 3D World Reconstruction with Any-Prior Prompting12 Oct 2025
- 2025ARTDECO: Towards Efficient and High-Fidelity On-the-Fly 3D Reconstruction with Structured Scene Representation9 Oct 2025
- 2025Learning Neural Exposure Fields for View Synthesis9 Oct 2025
- 2025Optimized Minimal 4D Gaussian Splatting4 Oct 2025
- 2025Task-Oriented Communications for 3D Scene Representation: Balancing Timeliness and Fidelity21 Sep 2025
- 2025Exploring Metric Fusion for Evaluation of NeRFs16 Sep 2025
- 2025A Survey of Deep Learning-based Point Cloud Denoising23 Aug 2025
- 2025DET-GS: Depth- and Edge-Aware Regularization for High-Fidelity 3D Gaussian Splatting6 Aug 2025
- 2025Duplex-GS: Proxy-Guided Weighted Blending for Real-Time Order-Independent Gaussian Splatting5 Aug 2025
- 2025Hestia: Voxel-Face-Aware Hierarchical Next-Best-View Acquisition for Efficient 3D Reconstruction1 Aug 2025
- 2025LighthouseGS: Indoor Structure-aware 3D Gaussian Splatting for Panorama-Style Mobile Captures8 Jul 2025
- 2025AnySplat: Feed-forward 3D Gaussian Splatting from Unconstrained Views29 May 2025
- 2025HaloGS: Loose Coupling of Compact Geometry and Gaussian Splats for 3D Scenes26 May 2025
- 2025Geometry-guided Online 3D Video Synthesis with Multi-View Temporal Consistency25 May 2025
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- 2025VRSplat: Fast and Robust Gaussian Splatting for Virtual Reality15 May 2025
- 2025FastMap: Revisiting Structure from Motion through First-Order Optimization7 May 2025
- 2025Differentiable Room Acoustic Rendering with Multi-View Vision Priors30 Apr 2025
- 2025Matrix-free Second-order Optimization of Gaussian Splats with Residual Sampling17 Apr 2025
- 2025Easy3D: A Simple Yet Effective Method for 3D Interactive Segmentation15 Apr 2025
- 2025SoundVista: Novel-View Ambient Sound Synthesis via Visual-Acoustic Binding8 Apr 2025
- 2025DiET-GS: Diffusion Prior and Event Stream-Assisted Motion Deblurring 3D Gaussian Splatting31 Mar 2025
- 2025Frequency-Aware Density Control via Reparameterization for High-Quality Rendering of 3D Gaussian Splatting10 Mar 2025
- 2025Beyond Existance: Fulfill 3D Reconstructed Scenes with Pseudo Details6 Mar 2025
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- 2025GS-Cache: A GS-Cache Inference Framework for Large-scale Gaussian Splatting Models20 Feb 2025
- 2025ROI-NeRFs: Hi-Fi Visualization of Objects of Interest within a Scene by NeRFs Composition18 Feb 2025
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50 newest of 86 All 86 (JSON)
- 2025Difix3D+: Improving 3D Reconstructions with Single-Step Diffusion Modelscited by 160
- 2025DiET-GS: Diffusion Prior and Event Stream-Assisted Motion Deblurring 3D Gaussian Splattingcited by 14
- 2026GR3EN: Generative Relighting for 3D Environmentscited by 5
- 2026Leveling3D: Leveling Up 3D Reconstruction with Feed-Forward 3D Gaussian Splatting and Geometry-Aware Generationcited by 0
- 2026Leveling3D: Leveling Up 3D Reconstruction with Feed-Forward 3D Gaussian Splatting and Geometry-Aware Generation17 Mar 2026
- 2026GR3EN: Generative Relighting for 3D Environments22 Jan 2026
- 2025DiET-GS: Diffusion Prior and Event Stream-Assisted Motion Deblurring 3D Gaussian Splatting31 Mar 2025
- 2025Difix3D+: Improving 3D Reconstructions with Single-Step Diffusion Models3 Mar 2025
- 2023Scaffold-GS: Structured 3D Gaussians for View-Adaptive Renderingcited by 684
- 2025AnySplat: Feed-forward 3D Gaussian Splatting from Unconstrained Viewscited by 234
- 2024Octree-GS: Towards Consistent Real-time Rendering with LOD-Structured 3D Gaussianscited by 225
- 2024VR-GS: A Physical Dynamics-Aware Interactive Gaussian Splatting System in Virtual Realitycited by 175
- 2024GSDF: 3DGS Meets SDF for Improved Rendering and Reconstructioncited by 81
- 2025WorldMirror: Universal 3D World Reconstruction with Any-Prior Promptingcited by 60
- 2024Click-Gaussian: Interactive Segmentation to Any 3D Gaussianscited by 58
- 2024EvaGaussians: Event Stream Assisted Gaussian Splatting from Blurry Imagescited by 56
- 2024SelfSplat: Pose-Free and 3D Prior-Free Generalizable 3D Gaussian Splattingcited by 40
- 2025FastGS: Training 3D Gaussian Splatting in 100 Secondscited by 39
- 2024Relaxing Accurate Initialization Constraint for 3D Gaussian Splattingcited by 33
- 2023SpecNeRF: Gaussian Directional Encoding for Specular Reflectionscited by 30
12 most cited of 81 All 81 (JSON)
- 2026AVSplat: Dense-View Feed-Forward 3D Gaussian Splatting with Assist-View Preconditioning5 Sep 2026
- 2026Scene-SAM3D: Multi-View Scene Asset Generation Without Fine-Tuning18 Jul 2026
- 2026Recent Advances and Trends in Learning-based 3D Representations3 Jun 2026
- 2026MU-GeNeRF: Multi-view Uncertainty-guided Generalizable Neural Radiance Fields for Distractor-aware Scene20 Apr 2026
- 2026UniQueR: Unified Query-based Feedforward 3D Reconstruction24 Mar 2026
- 2026M^3: Dense Matching Meets Multi-View Foundation Models for Monocular Gaussian Splatting SLAM17 Mar 2026
- 2026Sky2Ground: A Benchmark for Site Modeling under Varying Altitude14 Mar 2026
- 2026Marginalized Bundle Adjustment: Multi-View Camera Pose from Monocular Depth Estimates21 Feb 2026
- 2026EAG-PT: Emission-Aware Gaussians and Path Tracing for Diffuse Indoor Scene Reconstruction and Editing30 Jan 2026
- 2026PLANING: A Loosely Coupled Triangle-Gaussian Framework for Streaming 3D Reconstruction29 Jan 2026
- 2026LuxRemix: Lighting Decomposition and Remixing for Indoor Scenes21 Jan 2026
- 2025Robust Multi-view Camera Calibration from Dense Matches17 Dec 2025
12 newest of 81 All 81 (JSON)