mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

Multilingual E5 Text Embeddings: A Technical Report

arXiv 2402.05672 ↗First posted 8 Feb 2024cs.CL cs.IRcited by 357

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Cited by 55 in Retrieval-augmented generation, but placed by its own abstract, which didn’t fit.

Abstract (arXiv)

This technical report presents the training methodology and evaluation results of the open-source multilingual E5 text embedding models, released in mid-2023. Three embedding models of different sizes (small / base / large) are provided, offering a balance between the inference efficiency and embedding quality. The training procedure adheres to the English E5 model recipe, involving contrastive pre-training on 1 billion multilingual text pairs, followed by fine-tuning on a combination of labeled datasets. Additionally, we introduce a new instruction-tuned embedding model, whose performance is on par with state-of-the-art, English-only models of similar sizes. Information regarding the model release can be found at https://github.com/microsoft/unilm/tree/master/e5 .

Key facts. Cited by 357 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 16 of its 30 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 8 Feb 2024.

Builds on

16 of 30 references.

References · 16

  1. 2019Sentence-BERT: Sentence Embeddings using Siamese BERT-Networkscited by 9,049
  2. 2019Unsupervised Cross-lingual Representation Learning at Scalecited by 3,907
  3. 2020Dense Passage Retrieval for Open-Domain Question Answeringcited by 3,779
  4. 2018HotpotQA: A Dataset for Diverse, Explainable Multi-hop Question Answeringcited by 3,686
  5. 2021SimCSE: Simple Contrastive Learning of Sentence Embeddingscited by 2,168
  6. 2020mT5: A massively multilingual pre-trained text-to-text transformercited by 1,813
  7. 2016MS MARCO: A Human Generated MAchine Reading COmprehension Datasetcited by 1,591
  8. 2018FEVER: a large-scale dataset for Fact Extraction and VERificationcited by 1,362
  9. 2022No Language Left Behind: Scaling Human-Centered Machine Translationcited by 1,290
  10. 2022Text Embeddings by Weakly-Supervised Contrastive Pre-trainingcited by 1,216
  11. 2019ELI5: Long Form Question Answeringcited by 567
  12. 2021Sentence-T5: Scalable Sentence Encoders from Pre-trained Text-to-Text Modelscited by 462
4 more
  1. 2021Large Dual Encoders Are Generalizable Retrieverscited by 454
  2. 2018Massively Multilingual Sentence Embeddings for Zero-Shot Cross-Lingual Transfer and Beyondcited by 434
  3. 2020MiniLMv2: Multi-Head Self-Attention Relation Distillation for Compressing Pretrained Transformerscited by 240
  4. 2021Mr. TyDi: A Multi-lingual Benchmark for Dense Retrievalcited by 118

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Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2024: 39; 2025: 153; 2026: 165.

357 papers.

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  1. 2026Qwen3-VL-Embedding and Qwen3-VL-Reranker: A Unified Framework for State-of-the-Art Multimodal Retrieval and Rankingcited by 211
  2. 2024jina-embeddings-v3: Multilingual Embeddings With Task LoRAcited by 138
  3. 2024Large Concept Models: Language Modeling in a Sentence Representation Spacecited by 86
  4. 2024Repetition Improves Language Model Embeddingscited by 70
  5. 2024The Semantic Hub Hypothesis: Language Models Share Semantic Representations Across Languages and Modalitiescited by 69
  6. 2025Rank1: Test-Time Compute for Reranking in Information Retrievalcited by 68
  7. 2024Arctic-Embed 2.0: Multilingual Retrieval Without Compromisecited by 57
  8. 2024LLMmap: Fingerprinting For Large Language Modelscited by 56
  9. 2025Llama-Embed-Nemotron-8B: A Universal Text Embedding Model for Multilingual and Cross-Lingual Taskscited by 46
  10. 2024jina-clip-v2: Multilingual Multimodal Embeddings for Text and Imagescited by 36
  11. 2025Safety Pretraining: Toward the Next Generation of Safe AIcited by 35
  12. 2025KaLM-Embedding-V2: Superior Training Techniques and Data Inspire A Versatile Embedding Modelcited by 35
38 more
  1. 2025FP3: A 3D Foundation Policy for Robotic Manipulationcited by 31
  2. 2025SimpleDoc: Multi-Modal Document Understanding with Dual-Cue Page Retrieval and Iterative Refinementcited by 27
  3. 2024Jina-ColBERT-v2: A General-Purpose Multilingual Late Interaction Retrievercited by 25
  4. 2024Recent advances in text embedding: A Comprehensive Review of Top-Performing Methods on the MTEB Benchmarkcited by 19
  5. 2024MASSW: A New Dataset and Benchmark Tasks for AI-Assisted Scientific Workflowscited by 19
  6. 2025DRAMA: Diverse Augmentation from Large Language Models to Smaller Dense Retrieverscited by 19
  7. 2026jina-embeddings-v5-text: Task-Targeted Embedding Distillationcited by 19
  8. 2025Jawaher: A Multidialectal Dataset of Arabic Proverbs for LLM Benchmarkingcited by 18
  9. 2025FinDER: Financial Dataset for Question Answering and Evaluating Retrieval-Augmented Generationcited by 17
  10. 2025TARGET: Benchmarking Table Retrieval for Generative Taskscited by 17
  11. 2024Dallah: A Dialect-Aware Multimodal Large Language Model for Arabiccited by 16
  12. 2024JaColBERTv2.5: Optimising Multi-Vector Retrievers to Create State-of-the-Art Japanese Retrievers with Constrained Resourcescited by 15
  13. 2024Writing Style Matters: An Examination of Bias and Fairness in Information Retrieval Systemscited by 15
  14. 2024A Principled Framework for Evaluating on Typologically Diverse Languagescited by 12
  15. 2024Greenback Bears and Fiscal Hawks: Finance is a Jungle and Text Embeddings Must Adaptcited by 12
  16. 2024CoSQA+: Pioneering the Multi-Choice Code Search Benchmark with Test-Driven Agentscited by 11
  17. 2025ST-Raptor: LLM-Powered Semi-Structured Table Question Answeringcited by 11
  18. 2024Swan and ArabicMTEB: Dialect-Aware, Arabic-Centric, Cross-Lingual, and Cross-Cultural Embedding Models and Benchmarkscited by 10
  19. 2025FaMTEB: Massive Text Embedding Benchmark in Persian Languagecited by 10
  20. 2025Real-Time Out-of-Distribution Failure Prevention via Multi-Modal Reasoningcited by 10
  21. 2025Position: Text Embeddings Should Capture Implicit Semantics, Not Just Surface Meaningcited by 10
  22. 2025Omni-Embed-Nemotron: A Unified Multimodal Retrieval Model for Text, Image, Audio, and Videocited by 10
  23. 2025Characterizing LLM-driven Social Network: The Chirper.ai Casecited by 9
  24. 2025MIRACL-VISION: A Large, multilingual, visual document retrieval benchmarkcited by 9
  25. 2025Milco: Learned Sparse Retrieval Across Languages via a Multilingual Connectorcited by 9
  26. 2025Large Reasoning Embedding Models: Towards Next-Generation Dense Retrieval Paradigmcited by 9
  27. 2026Diffusion-Pretrained Dense and Contextual Embeddingscited by 9
  28. 2024ptt5-v2: A Closer Look at Continued Pretraining of T5 Models for the Portuguese Languagecited by 8
  29. 2024Are AI Detectors Good Enough? A Survey on Quality of Datasets With Machine-Generated Textscited by 8
  30. 2024AutoMIR: Effective Zero-Shot Medical Information Retrieval without Relevance Labelscited by 8
  31. 2025AirRAG: Autonomous Strategic Planning and Reasoning Steer Retrieval Augmented Generationcited by 8
  32. 2025Log Anomaly Detection with Large Language Models via Knowledge-Enriched Fusioncited by 8
  33. 2024GrEmLIn: A Repository of Green Baseline Embeddings for 87 Low-Resource Languages Injected with Multilingual Graph Knowledgecited by 7
  34. 2025Advancing Semantic Caching for LLMs with Domain-Specific Embeddings and Synthetic Datacited by 7
  35. 2025RMoA: Optimizing Mixture-of-Agents through Diversity Maximization and Residual Compensationcited by 7
  36. 2025MultiWikiQA: A Reading Comprehension Benchmark in 300+ Languagescited by 7
  37. 2025Measuring Combinatorial Creativity in Large Language Models and Humanscited by 7
  38. 2025Importance-Aware Data Selection for Efficient LLM Instruction Tuningcited by 7

50 most cited of 357 All 357 (JSON)