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Web(er) of Hate: A Survey on How Hate Speech Is Typed

arXiv 2506.16190 ↗First posted 19 Jun 2025cs.CLcited by 0

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Abstract (arXiv)

The curation of hate speech datasets involves complex design decisions that balance competing priorities. This paper critically examines these methodological choices in a diverse range of datasets, highlighting common themes and practices, and their implications for dataset reliability. Drawing on Max Weber's notion of ideal types, we argue for a reflexive approach in dataset creation, urging researchers to acknowledge their own value judgments during dataset construction, fostering transparency and methodological rigour.

Key facts. No citing papers in the map yet (data through 14 Oct 2026). Builds on 55 of its 133 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 19 Jun 2025.

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55 of 133 references.

References · 55

  1. 2017Automated Hate Speech Detection and the Problem of Offensive Languagecited by 736
  2. 2020HateXplain: A Benchmark Dataset for Explainable Hate Speech Detectioncited by 407
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  5. 2018Large Scale Crowdsourcing and Characterization of Twitter Abusive Behaviorcited by 270
  6. 2020Learning from the Worst: Dynamically Generated Datasets to Improve Online Hate Detectioncited by 221
  7. 2020HateCheck: Functional Tests for Hate Speech Detection Modelscited by 216
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  9. 2018Hate Speech Dataset from a White Supremacy Forumcited by 198
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  11. 2020Directions in Abusive Language Training Data: Garbage In, Garbage Outcited by 140
  12. 2019Multilingual and Multi-Aspect Hate Speech Analysiscited by 133
38 more
  1. 2019A Benchmark Dataset for Learning to Intervene in Online Hate Speechcited by 129
  2. 2019CONAN -- COunter NArratives through Nichesourcing: a Multilingual Dataset of Responses to Fight Online Hate Speechcited by 110
  3. 2019Exploring Hate Speech Detection in Multimodal Publicationscited by 103
  4. 2017Measuring the Reliability of Hate Speech Annotations: The Case of the European Refugee Crisiscited by 96
  5. 2020Toxicity Detection: Does Context Really Matter?cited by 93
  6. 2021Human-in-the-Loop for Data Collection: a Multi-Target Counter Narrative Dataset to Fight Online Hate Speechcited by 82
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  11. 2021Hatemoji: A Test Suite and Adversarially-Generated Dataset for Benchmarking and Detecting Emoji-based Hatecited by 50
  12. 2019Offensive Language and Hate Speech Detection for Danishcited by 49
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  16. 2020Toxic Language Detection in Social Media for Brazilian Portuguese: New Dataset and Multilingual Analysiscited by 45
  17. 2021Hate Towards the Political Opponent: A Twitter Corpus Study of the 2020 US Elections on the Basis of Offensive Speech and Stance Detectioncited by 45
  18. 2023Exploring Cross-Cultural Differences in English Hate Speech Annotations: From Dataset Construction to Analysiscited by 45
  19. 2021SWSR: A Chinese Dataset and Lexicon for Online Sexism Detectioncited by 42
  20. 2023HateMM: A Multi-Modal Dataset for Hate Video Classificationcited by 42
  21. 2022Large-Scale Hate Speech Detection with Cross-Domain Transfercited by 41
  22. 2018Aggression-annotated Corpus of Hindi-English Code-mixed Datacited by 40
  23. 2020Detecting East Asian Prejudice on Social Mediacited by 40
  24. 2020BEEP! Korean Corpus of Online News Comments for Toxic Speech Detectioncited by 39
  25. 2020Hate Speech detection in the Bengali language: A dataset and its baseline evaluationcited by 37
  26. 2020Hostility Detection Dataset in Hindicited by 31
  27. 2018Peer to Peer Hate: Hate Speech Instigators and Their Targetscited by 30
  28. 2024From Languages to Geographies: Towards Evaluating Cultural Bias in Hate Speech Datasetscited by 25
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  32. 2024Improving Adversarial Data Collection by Supporting Annotators: Lessons from GAHD, a German Hate Speech Datasetcited by 13
  33. 2023Offensive Language Identification in Transliterated and Code-Mixed Banglacited by 12
  34. 2018A Quality Type-aware Annotated Corpus and Lexicon for Harassment Researchcited by 11
  35. 2020Reducing Unintended Identity Bias in Russian Hate Speech Detectioncited by 10
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  37. 2024SGHateCheck: Functional Tests for Detecting Hate Speech in Low-Resource Languages of Singaporecited by 10
  38. 2024Subjective textitIsms? On the Danger of Conflating Hate and Offence in Abusive Language Detectioncited by 9

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