A Benchmark Dataset for Learning to Intervene in Online Hate Speech
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Abstract (arXiv)
Countering online hate speech is a critical yet challenging task, but one which can be aided by the use of Natural Language Processing (NLP) techniques. Previous research has primarily focused on the development of NLP methods to automatically and effectively detect online hate speech while disregarding further action needed to calm and discourage individuals from using hate speech in the future. In addition, most existing hate speech datasets treat each post as an isolated instance, ignoring the conversational context. In this paper, we propose a novel task of generative hate speech intervention, where the goal is to automatically generate responses to intervene during online conversations that contain hate speech. As a part of this work, we introduce two fully-labeled large-scale hate speech intervention datasets collected from Gab and Reddit. These datasets provide conversation segments, hate speech labels, as well as intervention responses written by Mechanical Turk Workers. In this paper, we also analyze the datasets to understand the common intervention strategies and explore the performance of common automatic response generation methods on these new datasets to provide a benchmark for future research.
Key facts. Cited by 128 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 10 Sep 2019.
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Citing papers per year: 2021: 20; 2022: 19; 2023: 26; 2024: 34; 2025: 18; 2026: 11.
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- 2021Human-in-the-Loop for Data Collection: a Multi-Target Counter Narrative Dataset to Fight Online Hate Speechcited by 81
- 2022Human-AI Collaboration via Conditional Delegation: A Case Study of Content Moderationcited by 66
- 2023SemEval-2023 Task 10: Explainable Detection of Online Sexismcited by 48
- 2021Generate, Prune, Select: A Pipeline for Counterspeech Generation against Online Hate Speechcited by 42
- 2021Towards Knowledge-Grounded Counter Narrative Generation for Hate Speechcited by 41
- 2022Human-Machine Collaboration Approaches to Build a Dialogue Dataset for Hate Speech Counteringcited by 40
- 2023Reinforcement Learning-based Counter-Misinformation Response Generation: A Case Study of COVID-19 Vaccine Misinformationcited by 39
- 2022Hate Speech and Counter Speech Detection: Conversational Context Does Mattercited by 32
- 2022Using Pre-Trained Language Models for Producing Counter Narratives Against Hate Speech: a Comparative Studycited by 30
- 2022CounterGeDi: A controllable approach to generate polite, detoxified and emotional counterspeechcited by 28
- 2021A systematic review of Hate Speech automatic detection using Natural Language Processingcited by 26
- 2023People Make Better Edits: Measuring the Efficacy of LLM-Generated Counterfactually Augmented Data for Harmful Language Detectioncited by 25
38 more
- 2021Understanding and Countering Stereotypes: A Computational Approach to the Stereotype Content Modelcited by 23
- 2024From Languages to Geographies: Towards Evaluating Cultural Bias in Hate Speech Datasetscited by 23
- 2023Beyond Denouncing Hate: Strategies for Countering Implied Biases and Stereotypes in Languagecited by 22
- 2021"Subverting the Jewtocracy": Online Antisemitism Detection Using Multimodal Deep Learningcited by 21
- 2024NLP for Counterspeech against Hate: A Survey and How-To Guidecited by 21
- 2021Dataset for Identification of Homophobia and Transophobia in Multilingual YouTube Commentscited by 20
- 2024MemeGuard: An LLM and VLM-based Framework for Advancing Content Moderation via Meme Interventioncited by 20
- 2024NLP Systems That Can't Tell Use from Mention Censor Counterspeech, but Teaching the Distinction Helpscited by 19
- 2022Hate Speech Criteria: A Modular Approach to Task-Specific Hate Speech Definitionscited by 18
- 2022Proactively Reducing the Hate Intensity of Online Posts via Hate Speech Normalizationcited by 17
- 2023Understanding Counterspeech for Online Harm Mitigationcited by 17
- 2024On Zero-Shot Counterspeech Generation by LLMscited by 17
- 2023Vicarious Offense and Noise Audit of Offensive Speech Classifiers: Unifying Human and Machine Disagreement on What is Offensivecited by 16
- 2024Modularized Networks for Few-shot Hateful Meme Detectioncited by 15
- 2024Contextualized Counterspeech: Strategies for Adaptation, Personalization, and Evaluationcited by 15
- 2021CONDA: a CONtextual Dual-Annotated dataset for in-game toxicity understanding and detectioncited by 14
- 2023StyloMetrix: An Open-Source Multilingual Tool for Representing Stylometric Vectorscited by 14
- 2023DisCGen: A Framework for Discourse-Informed Counterspeech Generationcited by 14
- 2024MetaHate: A Dataset for Unifying Efforts on Hate Speech Detectioncited by 14
- 2021Empowering NGOs in Countering Online Hate Messagescited by 13
- 2023Counterspeeches up my sleeve! Intent Distribution Learning and Persistent Fusion for Intent-Conditioned Counterspeech Generationcited by 13
- 2021Countering Online Hate Speech: An NLP Perspectivecited by 12
- 2023CoSyn: Detecting Implicit Hate Speech in Online Conversations Using a Context Synergized Hyperbolic Networkcited by 12
- 2024Outcome-Constrained Large Language Models for Countering Hate Speechcited by 12
- 2024Is Safer Better? The Impact of Guardrails on the Argumentative Strength of LLMs in Hate Speech Counteringcited by 11
- 2022Generalizing Hate Speech Detection Using Multi-Task Learning: A Case Study of Political Public Figurescited by 10
- 2024DetoxLLM: A Framework for Detoxification with Explanationscited by 10
- 2024Social Intelligence Data Infrastructure: Structuring the Present and Navigating the Futurecited by 10
- 2021Multilingual Counter Narrative Type Classificationcited by 9
- 2021Revisiting Contextual Toxicity Detection in Conversationscited by 8
- 2023Multilingual Content Moderation: A Case Study on Redditcited by 8
- 2024Optimizing Language Models for Human Preferences is a Causal Inference Problemcited by 8
- 2024Computational Politeness in Natural Language Processing: A Surveycited by 8
- 2022ELF22: A Context-based Counter Trolling Dataset to Combat Internet Trollscited by 7
- 2022Reliable Decision from Multiple Subtasks through Threshold Optimization: Content Moderation in the Wildcited by 7
- 2023Weigh Your Own Words: Improving Hate Speech Counter Narrative Generation via Attention Regularizationcited by 7
- 2024Basque and Spanish Counter Narrative Generation: Data Creation and Evaluationcited by 7
- 2022Korean Online Hate Speech Dataset for Multilabel Classification: How Can Social Science Improve Dataset on Hate Speech?cited by 6
50 most cited of 128 All 128 (JSON)
- 2026Deconstructing Stereotypes: Scope-Conditioned Generation for Effective Multilingual Counterspeech15 Sep 2026
- 2026CC-Mediation: Evaluating Large Language Models for Cross-Cultural Conflict Mediation4 Sep 2026
- 2026From Specialization to Generalization: Instruction-tuned LLMs for Robust Harmful Content Mitigation26 Aug 2026
- 2026Counter with Evidence! A Multi-Agent Memory Efficient Reasoning Framework for Hate Category Informed Counterspeech Generation24 Aug 2026
- 2026Introducing the Privacy-HSD Trade-off: Hate Speech Detection, but not at the Cost of Privacy19 Aug 2026
- 2026Contextualized Counterspeech Can Be More Persuasive Than Generic Counterspeech28 Jul 2026
- 2026LoRA for Gender-Inclusive Rewriting and Activation Steering for Counter-Narrative Generation25 Jul 2026
- 2026Beyond Static Benchmarks: Synthesizing Harmful Content via Persona-based Simulation for Robust Evaluation18 Apr 2026
- 2026Hate Speech Detection using Large Language Models with Data Augmentation and Feature Enhancement5 Mar 2026
- 2026Omitted Variable Bias in Language Models Under Distribution Shift18 Feb 2026
- 2026ToxiGAN: Toxic Data Augmentation via LLM-Guided Directional Adversarial Generation6 Jan 2026
- 2025Beating Harmful Stereotypes Through Facts: RAG-based Counter-speech Generation14 Oct 2025
38 more
- 2025Bridging Gaps in Hate Speech Detection: Meta-Collections and Benchmarks for Low-Resource Iberian Languages13 Oct 2025
- 2025Defining, Understanding, and Detecting Online Toxicity: Challenges and Machine Learning Approaches14 Sep 2025
- 2025WATCHED: A Web AI Agent Tool for Combating Hate Speech by Expanding Data1 Sep 2025
- 2025Counterspeech for Mitigating the Influence of Media Bias: Comparing Human and LLM-Generated Responses20 Aug 2025
- 2025Cyberbullying Detection via Aggression-Enhanced Prompting8 Aug 2025
- 2025Can NLP Tackle Hate Speech in the Real World? Stakeholder-Informed Feedback and Survey on Counterspeech6 Aug 2025
- 2025Dialogues of Dissent: Thematic and Rhetorical Dimensions of Hate and Counter-Hate Speech in Social Media Conversations28 Jul 2025
- 2025Web(er) of Hate: A Survey on How Hate Speech Is Typed19 Jun 2025
- 2025K/DA: Automated Data Generation Pipeline for Detoxifying Implicitly Offensive Language in Korean16 Jun 2025
- 2025Effectiveness of Counter-Speech against Abusive Content: A Multidimensional Annotation and Classification Study13 Jun 2025
- 2025Counterspeech the ultimate shield! Multi-Conditioned Counterspeech Generation through Attributed Prefix Learning17 May 2025
- 2025Debunking with Dialogue? Exploring AI-Generated Counterspeech to Challenge Conspiracy Theories23 Apr 2025
- 2025Graphically Speaking: Unmasking Abuse in Social Media with Conversation Insights2 Apr 2025
- 2025MemeSense: An Adaptive In-Context Framework for Social Commonsense Driven Meme Moderation16 Feb 2025
- 2025CSEval: Towards Automated, Multi-Dimensional, and Reference-Free Counterspeech Evaluation using Auto-Calibrated LLMs29 Jan 2025
- 2025Echoes of Discord: Forecasting Hater Reactions to Counterspeech27 Jan 2025
- 2025PANDA -- Paired Anti-hate Narratives Dataset from Asia: Using an LLM-as-a-Judge to Create the First Chinese Counterspeech Dataset1 Jan 2025
- 2024Contextualized Counterspeech: Strategies for Adaptation, Personalization, and Evaluation10 Dec 2024
- 2024A Survey on Automatic Online Hate Speech Detection in Low-Resource Languages28 Nov 2024
- 2024Assessing the Human Likeness of AI-Generated Counterspeech14 Oct 2024
- 2024Is Safer Better? The Impact of Guardrails on the Argumentative Strength of LLMs in Hate Speech Countering4 Oct 2024
- 2024CrowdCounter: A benchmark type-specific multi-target counterspeech dataset2 Oct 2024
- 2024Decoding Hate: Exploring Language Models' Reactions to Hate Speech1 Oct 2024
- 2024What is the social benefit of hate speech detection research? A Systematic Review26 Sep 2024
- 2024Analysis of Socially Unacceptable Discourse with Zero-shot Learning10 Sep 2024
- 2024Towards Generalized Offensive Language Identification26 Jul 2024
- 2024Exploring the Plausibility of Hate and Counter Speech Detectors with Explainable AI25 Jul 2024
- 2024Computational Politeness in Natural Language Processing: A Survey28 Jun 2024
- 2024Empirical Evaluation of Public HateSpeech Datasets27 Jun 2024
- 2024COT: A Generative Approach for Hate Speech Counter-Narratives via Contrastive Optimal Transport18 Jun 2024
- 2024MemeGuard: An LLM and VLM-based Framework for Advancing Content Moderation via Meme Intervention8 Jun 2024
- 2024Improving code-mixed hate detection by native sample mixing: A case study for Hindi-English code-mixed scenario31 May 2024
- 2024The Unappreciated Role of Intent in Algorithmic Moderation of Social Media Content17 May 2024
- 2024The Unseen Targets of Hate -- A Systematic Review of Hateful Communication Datasets14 May 2024
- 2024LGDE: Local Graph-based Dictionary Expansion13 May 2024
- 2024From Languages to Geographies: Towards Evaluating Cultural Bias in Hate Speech Datasets27 Apr 2024
- 2024Challenging Negative Gender Stereotypes: A Study on the Effectiveness of Automated Counter-Stereotypes18 Apr 2024
- 2024NLP Systems That Can't Tell Use from Mention Censor Counterspeech, but Teaching the Distinction Helps2 Apr 2024
50 newest of 128 All 128 (JSON)
- 2024MemeGuard: An LLM and VLM-based Framework for Advancing Content Moderation via Meme Interventioncited by 20
- 2024Is Safer Better? The Impact of Guardrails on the Argumentative Strength of LLMs in Hate Speech Counteringcited by 11
- 2022Reliable Decision from Multiple Subtasks through Threshold Optimization: Content Moderation in the Wildcited by 7
- 2025Beating Harmful Stereotypes Through Facts: RAG-based Counter-speech Generationcited by 2
- 2023Latent Feature-based Data Splits to Improve Generalisation Evaluation: A Hate Speech Detection Case Studycited by 0
- 2026Beyond Static Benchmarks: Synthesizing Harmful Content via Persona-based Simulation for Robust Evaluationcited by 0
- 2026From Specialization to Generalization: Instruction-tuned LLMs for Robust Harmful Content Mitigationcited by 0
- 2026From Specialization to Generalization: Instruction-tuned LLMs for Robust Harmful Content Mitigation26 Aug 2026
- 2026Beyond Static Benchmarks: Synthesizing Harmful Content via Persona-based Simulation for Robust Evaluation18 Apr 2026
- 2025Beating Harmful Stereotypes Through Facts: RAG-based Counter-speech Generation14 Oct 2025
- 2024Is Safer Better? The Impact of Guardrails on the Argumentative Strength of LLMs in Hate Speech Countering4 Oct 2024
- 2024MemeGuard: An LLM and VLM-based Framework for Advancing Content Moderation via Meme Intervention8 Jun 2024
- 2023Latent Feature-based Data Splits to Improve Generalisation Evaluation: A Hate Speech Detection Case Study16 Nov 2023
- 2022Reliable Decision from Multiple Subtasks through Threshold Optimization: Content Moderation in the Wild16 Aug 2022
- 2021Human-in-the-Loop for Data Collection: a Multi-Target Counter Narrative Dataset to Fight Online Hate Speechcited by 81
- 2022Human-AI Collaboration via Conditional Delegation: A Case Study of Content Moderationcited by 66
- 2023SemEval-2023 Task 10: Explainable Detection of Online Sexismcited by 48
- 2021Generate, Prune, Select: A Pipeline for Counterspeech Generation against Online Hate Speechcited by 42
- 2021Towards Knowledge-Grounded Counter Narrative Generation for Hate Speechcited by 41
- 2022Human-Machine Collaboration Approaches to Build a Dialogue Dataset for Hate Speech Counteringcited by 40
- 2023Reinforcement Learning-based Counter-Misinformation Response Generation: A Case Study of COVID-19 Vaccine Misinformationcited by 39
- 2022Hate Speech and Counter Speech Detection: Conversational Context Does Mattercited by 32
- 2022Using Pre-Trained Language Models for Producing Counter Narratives Against Hate Speech: a Comparative Studycited by 30
- 2022CounterGeDi: A controllable approach to generate polite, detoxified and emotional counterspeechcited by 28
- 2021A systematic review of Hate Speech automatic detection using Natural Language Processingcited by 26
- 2023People Make Better Edits: Measuring the Efficacy of LLM-Generated Counterfactually Augmented Data for Harmful Language Detectioncited by 25
12 most cited of 119 All 119 (JSON)
- 2026Deconstructing Stereotypes: Scope-Conditioned Generation for Effective Multilingual Counterspeech15 Sep 2026
- 2026CC-Mediation: Evaluating Large Language Models for Cross-Cultural Conflict Mediation4 Sep 2026
- 2026Counter with Evidence! A Multi-Agent Memory Efficient Reasoning Framework for Hate Category Informed Counterspeech Generation24 Aug 2026
- 2026Introducing the Privacy-HSD Trade-off: Hate Speech Detection, but not at the Cost of Privacy19 Aug 2026
- 2026Contextualized Counterspeech Can Be More Persuasive Than Generic Counterspeech28 Jul 2026
- 2026LoRA for Gender-Inclusive Rewriting and Activation Steering for Counter-Narrative Generation25 Jul 2026
- 2026Hate Speech Detection using Large Language Models with Data Augmentation and Feature Enhancement5 Mar 2026
- 2026Omitted Variable Bias in Language Models Under Distribution Shift18 Feb 2026
- 2026ToxiGAN: Toxic Data Augmentation via LLM-Guided Directional Adversarial Generation6 Jan 2026
- 2025Bridging Gaps in Hate Speech Detection: Meta-Collections and Benchmarks for Low-Resource Iberian Languages13 Oct 2025
- 2025Defining, Understanding, and Detecting Online Toxicity: Challenges and Machine Learning Approaches14 Sep 2025
- 2025Counterspeech for Mitigating the Influence of Media Bias: Comparing Human and LLM-Generated Responses20 Aug 2025
12 newest of 119 All 119 (JSON)