CONAN -- COunter NArratives through Nichesourcing: a Multilingual Dataset of Responses to Fight Online Hate Speech
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Abstract (arXiv)
Although there is an unprecedented effort to provide adequate responses in terms of laws and policies to hate content on social media platforms, dealing with hatred online is still a tough problem. Tackling hate speech in the standard way of content deletion or user suspension may be charged with censorship and overblocking. One alternate strategy, that has received little attention so far by the research community, is to actually oppose hate content with counter-narratives (i.e. informed textual responses). In this paper, we describe the creation of the first large-scale, multilingual, expert-based dataset of hate speech/counter-narrative pairs. This dataset has been built with the effort of more than 100 operators from three different NGOs that applied their training and expertise to the task. Together with the collected data we also provide additional annotations about expert demographics, hate and response type, and data augmentation through translation and paraphrasing. Finally, we provide initial experiments to assess the quality of our data.
Key facts. Cited by 109 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 8 Oct 2019.
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Citing papers per year: 2021: 22; 2022: 15; 2023: 13; 2024: 29; 2025: 18; 2026: 12.
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- 2023Low-Resource Languages Jailbreak GPT-4cited by 290
- 2021Recent Advances in Deep Learning Based Dialogue Systems: A Systematic Surveycited by 130
- 2021Human-in-the-Loop for Data Collection: a Multi-Target Counter Narrative Dataset to Fight Online Hate Speechcited by 81
- 2021Towards generalisable hate speech detection: a review on obstacles and solutionscited by 66
- 2021Just Say No: Analyzing the Stance of Neural Dialogue Generation in Offensive Contextscited by 56
- 2021Generate, Prune, Select: A Pipeline for Counterspeech Generation against Online Hate Speechcited by 42
- 2021Towards Knowledge-Grounded Counter Narrative Generation for Hate Speechcited by 41
- 2022Human-Machine Collaboration Approaches to Build a Dialogue Dataset for Hate Speech Counteringcited by 40
- 2021Detecting Harmful Content On Online Platforms: What Platforms Need Vs. Where Research Efforts Gocited by 32
- 2022Hate Speech and Counter Speech Detection: Conversational Context Does Mattercited by 32
- 2022Using Pre-Trained Language Models for Producing Counter Narratives Against Hate Speech: a Comparative Studycited by 30
- 2022CounterGeDi: A controllable approach to generate polite, detoxified and emotional counterspeechcited by 28
38 more
- 2021A systematic review of Hate Speech automatic detection using Natural Language Processingcited by 26
- 2024Recent Advances in Hate Speech Moderation: Multimodality and the Role of Large Modelscited by 26
- 2021A Large-scale Dataset for Hate Speech Detection on Vietnamese Social Media Textscited by 25
- 2021Understanding and Countering Stereotypes: A Computational Approach to the Stereotype Content Modelcited by 23
- 2024From Languages to Geographies: Towards Evaluating Cultural Bias in Hate Speech Datasetscited by 23
- 2023Beyond Denouncing Hate: Strategies for Countering Implied Biases and Stereotypes in Languagecited by 22
- 2021Few-shot Instruction Prompts for Pretrained Language Models to Detect Social Biasescited by 21
- 2024NLP for Counterspeech against Hate: A Survey and How-To Guidecited by 21
- 2024MemeGuard: An LLM and VLM-based Framework for Advancing Content Moderation via Meme Interventioncited by 20
- 2024NLP Systems That Can't Tell Use from Mention Censor Counterspeech, but Teaching the Distinction Helpscited by 19
- 2022Hate Speech Criteria: A Modular Approach to Task-Specific Hate Speech Definitionscited by 18
- 2022Proactively Reducing the Hate Intensity of Online Posts via Hate Speech Normalizationcited by 17
- 2023Understanding Counterspeech for Online Harm Mitigationcited by 17
- 2024On Zero-Shot Counterspeech Generation by LLMscited by 17
- 2021HateBR: A Large Expert Annotated Corpus of Brazilian Instagram Comments for Offensive Language and Hate Speech Detectioncited by 15
- 2024Contextualized Counterspeech: Strategies for Adaptation, Personalization, and Evaluationcited by 15
- 2022Emojis as Anchors to Detect Arabic Offensive Language and Hate Speechcited by 14
- 2023DisCGen: A Framework for Discourse-Informed Counterspeech Generationcited by 14
- 2021"Short is the Road that Leads from Fear to Hate": Fear Speech in Indian WhatsApp Groupscited by 13
- 2021Empowering NGOs in Countering Online Hate Messagescited by 13
- 2023Counterspeeches up my sleeve! Intent Distribution Learning and Persistent Fusion for Intent-Conditioned Counterspeech Generationcited by 13
- 2021Countering Online Hate Speech: An NLP Perspectivecited by 12
- 2022Automatic Identification and Classification of Bragging in Social Mediacited by 12
- 2022Detecting Unintended Social Bias in Toxic Language Datasetscited by 12
- 2024Outcome-Constrained Large Language Models for Countering Hate Speechcited by 12
- 2023Hate Cannot Drive out Hate: Forecasting Conversation Incivility following Replies to Hate Speechcited by 10
- 2021Multilingual Counter Narrative Type Classificationcited by 9
- 2023Multilingual Content Moderation: A Case Study on Redditcited by 8
- 2024Computational Politeness in Natural Language Processing: A Surveycited by 8
- 2022ELF22: A Context-based Counter Trolling Dataset to Combat Internet Trollscited by 7
- 2022Reliable Decision from Multiple Subtasks through Threshold Optimization: Content Moderation in the Wildcited by 7
- 2024Basque and Spanish Counter Narrative Generation: Data Creation and Evaluationcited by 7
- 2024A Multi-Aspect Framework for Counter Narrative Evaluation using Large Language Modelscited by 6
- 2024A LLM-Based Ranking Method for the Evaluation of Automatic Counter-Narrative Generationcited by 6
- 2024Decoding Hate: Exploring Language Models' Reactions to Hate Speechcited by 6
- 2021Abusive Language Detection in Heterogeneous Contexts: Dataset Collection and the Role of Supervised Attentioncited by 5
- 2022Counter Hate Speech in Social Media: A Surveycited by 5
- 2023On the rise of fear speech in online social mediacited by 5
50 most cited of 109 All 109 (JSON)
- 2026Deconstructing Stereotypes: Scope-Conditioned Generation for Effective Multilingual Counterspeech15 Sep 2026
- 2026From Specialization to Generalization: Instruction-tuned LLMs for Robust Harmful Content Mitigation26 Aug 2026
- 2026Counter with Evidence! A Multi-Agent Memory Efficient Reasoning Framework for Hate Category Informed Counterspeech Generation24 Aug 2026
- 2026CATCH-ME if you RAG: a dataset of Contextually Annotated multi-Turn Counterspeech against Hate and Misinformation Exchanges18 Jun 2026
- 2026Cyberbullying Governance on Social Media: A Unified Framework from Content Identification to Intervention26 May 2026
- 2026Assisted Counterspeech Writing at the Crossroads of Hate Speech and Misinformation21 May 2026
- 2026Bye Bye Perspective API: Lessons for Building and Governing Measurement Infrastructure28 Apr 2026
- 2026Beyond Static Benchmarks: Synthesizing Harmful Content via Persona-based Simulation for Robust Evaluation18 Apr 2026
- 2026When Hate Meets Facts: LLMs-in-the-Loop for Check-worthiness Detection in Hate Speech26 Mar 2026
- 2026Multilingual Hate Speech Detection and Counterspeech Generation: A Comprehensive Survey and Practical Guide1 Mar 2026
- 2026PEACE 2.0: Grounded Explanations and Counter-Speech for Combating Hate Expressions19 Feb 2026
- 2026FC-CONAN: An Exhaustively Paired Dataset for Robust Evaluation of Retrieval Systems4 Jan 2026
38 more
- 2025SPOT: An Annotated French Corpus and Benchmark for Detecting Critical Interventions in Online Conversations10 Nov 2025
- 2025Beating Harmful Stereotypes Through Facts: RAG-based Counter-speech Generation14 Oct 2025
- 2025Bridging Gaps in Hate Speech Detection: Meta-Collections and Benchmarks for Low-Resource Iberian Languages13 Oct 2025
- 2025Mapping Toxic Comments Across Demographics: A Dataset from German Public Broadcasting26 Aug 2025
- 2025Can NLP Tackle Hate Speech in the Real World? Stakeholder-Informed Feedback and Survey on Counterspeech6 Aug 2025
- 2025Distilling Knowledge from Large Language Models: A Concept Bottleneck Model for Hate and Counter Speech Recognition30 Jul 2025
- 2025Dialogues of Dissent: Thematic and Rhetorical Dimensions of Hate and Counter-Hate Speech in Social Media Conversations28 Jul 2025
- 2025Web(er) of Hate: A Survey on How Hate Speech Is Typed19 Jun 2025
- 2025Rethinking Hate Speech Detection on Social Media: Can LLMs Replace Traditional Models?15 Jun 2025
- 2025Effectiveness of Counter-Speech against Abusive Content: A Multidimensional Annotation and Classification Study13 Jun 2025
- 2025Counterspeech the ultimate shield! Multi-Conditioned Counterspeech Generation through Attributed Prefix Learning17 May 2025
- 2025Debunking with Dialogue? Exploring AI-Generated Counterspeech to Challenge Conspiracy Theories23 Apr 2025
- 2025A Survey of Machine Learning Models and Datasets for the Multi-label Classification of Textual Hate Speech in English11 Apr 2025
- 2025LLM-C3MOD: A Human-LLM Collaborative System for Cross-Cultural Hate Speech Moderation10 Mar 2025
- 2025Improving Hate Speech Classification with Cross-Taxonomy Dataset Integration7 Mar 2025
- 2025CSEval: Towards Automated, Multi-Dimensional, and Reference-Free Counterspeech Evaluation using Auto-Calibrated LLMs29 Jan 2025
- 2025Echoes of Discord: Forecasting Hater Reactions to Counterspeech27 Jan 2025
- 2025PANDA -- Paired Anti-hate Narratives Dataset from Asia: Using an LLM-as-a-Judge to Create the First Chinese Counterspeech Dataset1 Jan 2025
- 2024Contextualized Counterspeech: Strategies for Adaptation, Personalization, and Evaluation10 Dec 2024
- 2024A Survey on Automatic Online Hate Speech Detection in Low-Resource Languages28 Nov 2024
- 2024Critical Questions Generation: Motivation and Challenges18 Oct 2024
- 2024Assessing the Human Likeness of AI-Generated Counterspeech14 Oct 2024
- 2024CrowdCounter: A benchmark type-specific multi-target counterspeech dataset2 Oct 2024
- 2024Decoding Hate: Exploring Language Models' Reactions to Hate Speech1 Oct 2024
- 2024What is the social benefit of hate speech detection research? A Systematic Review26 Sep 2024
- 2024An Effective, Robust and Fairness-aware Hate Speech Detection Framework25 Sep 2024
- 2024SWE2: SubWord Enriched and Significant Word Emphasized Framework for Hate Speech Detection25 Sep 2024
- 2024A Study on Bias Detection and Classification in Natural Language Processing14 Aug 2024
- 2024Computational Politeness in Natural Language Processing: A Survey28 Jun 2024
- 2024A LLM-Based Ranking Method for the Evaluation of Automatic Counter-Narrative Generation21 Jun 2024
- 2024COT: A Generative Approach for Hate Speech Counter-Narratives via Contrastive Optimal Transport18 Jun 2024
- 2024MemeGuard: An LLM and VLM-based Framework for Advancing Content Moderation via Meme Intervention8 Jun 2024
- 2024Improving code-mixed hate detection by native sample mixing: A case study for Hindi-English code-mixed scenario31 May 2024
- 2024From Languages to Geographies: Towards Evaluating Cultural Bias in Hate Speech Datasets27 Apr 2024
- 2024Challenging Negative Gender Stereotypes: A Study on the Effectiveness of Automated Counter-Stereotypes18 Apr 2024
- 2024NLP Systems That Can't Tell Use from Mention Censor Counterspeech, but Teaching the Distinction Helps2 Apr 2024
- 2024NLP for Counterspeech against Hate: A Survey and How-To Guide29 Mar 2024
- 2024Outcome-Constrained Large Language Models for Countering Hate Speech25 Mar 2024
50 newest of 109 All 109 (JSON)
- 2023Low-Resource Languages Jailbreak GPT-4cited by 290
- 2024MemeGuard: An LLM and VLM-based Framework for Advancing Content Moderation via Meme Interventioncited by 20
- 2022Reliable Decision from Multiple Subtasks through Threshold Optimization: Content Moderation in the Wildcited by 7
- 2025Beating Harmful Stereotypes Through Facts: RAG-based Counter-speech Generationcited by 2
- 2026Beyond Static Benchmarks: Synthesizing Harmful Content via Persona-based Simulation for Robust Evaluationcited by 0
- 2026From Specialization to Generalization: Instruction-tuned LLMs for Robust Harmful Content Mitigationcited by 0
- 2026From Specialization to Generalization: Instruction-tuned LLMs for Robust Harmful Content Mitigation26 Aug 2026
- 2026Beyond Static Benchmarks: Synthesizing Harmful Content via Persona-based Simulation for Robust Evaluation18 Apr 2026
- 2025Beating Harmful Stereotypes Through Facts: RAG-based Counter-speech Generation14 Oct 2025
- 2024MemeGuard: An LLM and VLM-based Framework for Advancing Content Moderation via Meme Intervention8 Jun 2024
- 2023Low-Resource Languages Jailbreak GPT-43 Oct 2023
- 2022Reliable Decision from Multiple Subtasks through Threshold Optimization: Content Moderation in the Wild16 Aug 2022
- 2021Recent Advances in Deep Learning Based Dialogue Systems: A Systematic Surveycited by 130
- 2021Human-in-the-Loop for Data Collection: a Multi-Target Counter Narrative Dataset to Fight Online Hate Speechcited by 81
- 2021Towards generalisable hate speech detection: a review on obstacles and solutionscited by 66
- 2021Just Say No: Analyzing the Stance of Neural Dialogue Generation in Offensive Contextscited by 56
- 2021Generate, Prune, Select: A Pipeline for Counterspeech Generation against Online Hate Speechcited by 42
- 2021Towards Knowledge-Grounded Counter Narrative Generation for Hate Speechcited by 41
- 2022Human-Machine Collaboration Approaches to Build a Dialogue Dataset for Hate Speech Counteringcited by 40
- 2021Detecting Harmful Content On Online Platforms: What Platforms Need Vs. Where Research Efforts Gocited by 32
- 2022Hate Speech and Counter Speech Detection: Conversational Context Does Mattercited by 32
- 2022Using Pre-Trained Language Models for Producing Counter Narratives Against Hate Speech: a Comparative Studycited by 30
- 2022CounterGeDi: A controllable approach to generate polite, detoxified and emotional counterspeechcited by 28
- 2021A systematic review of Hate Speech automatic detection using Natural Language Processingcited by 26
12 most cited of 102 All 102 (JSON)
- 2026Deconstructing Stereotypes: Scope-Conditioned Generation for Effective Multilingual Counterspeech15 Sep 2026
- 2026Counter with Evidence! A Multi-Agent Memory Efficient Reasoning Framework for Hate Category Informed Counterspeech Generation24 Aug 2026
- 2026CATCH-ME if you RAG: a dataset of Contextually Annotated multi-Turn Counterspeech against Hate and Misinformation Exchanges18 Jun 2026
- 2026Cyberbullying Governance on Social Media: A Unified Framework from Content Identification to Intervention26 May 2026
- 2026Assisted Counterspeech Writing at the Crossroads of Hate Speech and Misinformation21 May 2026
- 2026Bye Bye Perspective API: Lessons for Building and Governing Measurement Infrastructure28 Apr 2026
- 2026When Hate Meets Facts: LLMs-in-the-Loop for Check-worthiness Detection in Hate Speech26 Mar 2026
- 2026Multilingual Hate Speech Detection and Counterspeech Generation: A Comprehensive Survey and Practical Guide1 Mar 2026
- 2026PEACE 2.0: Grounded Explanations and Counter-Speech for Combating Hate Expressions19 Feb 2026
- 2026FC-CONAN: An Exhaustively Paired Dataset for Robust Evaluation of Retrieval Systems4 Jan 2026
- 2025SPOT: An Annotated French Corpus and Benchmark for Detecting Critical Interventions in Online Conversations10 Nov 2025
- 2025Bridging Gaps in Hate Speech Detection: Meta-Collections and Benchmarks for Low-Resource Iberian Languages13 Oct 2025
12 newest of 102 All 102 (JSON)