mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

Hate Towards the Political Opponent: A Twitter Corpus Study of the 2020 US Elections on the Basis of Offensive Speech and Stance Detection

arXiv 2103.01664 ↗First posted 2 Mar 2021cs.CLcited by 45

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Abstract (arXiv)

The 2020 US Elections have been, more than ever before, characterized by social media campaigns and mutual accusations. We investigate in this paper if this manifests also in online communication of the supporters of the candidates Biden and Trump, by uttering hateful and offensive communication. We formulate an annotation task, in which we join the tasks of hateful/offensive speech detection and stance detection, and annotate 3000 Tweets from the campaign period, if they express a particular stance towards a candidate. Next to the established classes of favorable and against, we add mixed and neutral stances and also annotate if a candidate is mentioned without an opinion expression. Further, we annotate if the tweet is written in an offensive style. This enables us to analyze if supporters of Joe Biden and the Democratic Party communicate differently than supporters of Donald Trump and the Republican Party. A BERT baseline classifier shows that the detection if somebody is a supporter of a candidate can be performed with high quality (.89 F1 for Trump and .91 F1 for Biden), while the detection that somebody expresses to be against a candidate is more challenging (.79 F1 and .64 F1, respectively). The automatic detection of hate/offensive speech remains challenging (with .53 F1). Our corpus is publicly available and constitutes a novel resource for computational modelling of offensive language under consideration of stances.

Key facts. Cited by 45 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 10 of its 34 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 2 Mar 2021.

Builds on

10 of 34 references.

References · 10

  1. 2018BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understandingcited by 40,204
  2. 2017Automated Hate Speech Detection and the Problem of Offensive Languagecited by 724
  3. 2018Hate Speech Dataset from a White Supremacy Forumcited by 196
  4. 2020SemEval-2020 Task 12: Multilingual Offensive Language Identification in Social Media (OffensEval 2020)cited by 138
  5. 2017Measuring the Reliability of Hate Speech Annotations: The Case of the European Refugee Crisiscited by 95
  6. 2017Detecting Online Hate Speech Using Context Aware Modelscited by 72
  7. 2016Stance and Sentiment in Tweetscited by 62
  8. 2017Simple Open Stance Classification for Rumour Analysiscited by 9
  9. 2018Stance Detection on Tweets: An SVM-based Approachcited by 8
  10. 2018Stance Prediction for Russian: Data and Analysiscited by 8

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Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2021: 3; 2022: 7; 2023: 11; 2024: 12; 2025: 9; 2026: 3.

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  1. 2023You Only Prompt Once: On the Capabilities of Prompt Learning on Large Language Models to Tackle Toxic Contentcited by 37
  2. 2023Robust Hate Speech Detection in Social Media: A Cross-Dataset Empirical Evaluationcited by 28
  3. 2022Listening to Affected Communities to Define Extreme Speech: Dataset and Experimentscited by 21
  4. 2024An Investigation of Large Language Models for Real-World Hate Speech Detectioncited by 20
  5. 2024ToxiCraft: A Novel Framework for Synthetic Generation of Harmful Informationcited by 17
  6. 2023Vicarious Offense and Noise Audit of Offensive Speech Classifiers: Unifying Human and Machine Disagreement on What is Offensivecited by 16
  7. 2021Multi-Task Learning with Sentiment, Emotion, and Target Detection to Recognize Hate Speech and Offensive Languagecited by 12
  8. 2021An Information Retrieval Approach to Building Datasets for Hate Speech Detectioncited by 9
  9. 2023SuperTweetEval: A Challenging, Unified and Heterogeneous Benchmark for Social Media NLP Researchcited by 9
  10. 2022Analyzing Hate Speech Data along Racial, Gender and Intersectional Axescited by 7
  11. 2023HateModerate: Testing Hate Speech Detectors against Content Moderation Policiescited by 7
  12. 2024EkoHate: Abusive Language and Hate Speech Detection for Code-switched Political Discussions on Nigerian Twittercited by 7
33 more
  1. 2025MFTCXplain: A Multilingual Benchmark Dataset for Evaluating the Moral Reasoning of LLMs through Multi-hop Hate Speech Explanationcited by 7
  2. 2024Decoding Hate: Exploring Language Models' Reactions to Hate Speechcited by 6
  3. 2021From Theories on Styles to their Transfer in Text: Bridging the Gap with a Hierarchical Surveycited by 5
  4. 2022Semi-supervised Stance Detection of Tweets Via Distant Network Supervisioncited by 3
  5. 2024Cross-Target Stance Detection: A Survey of Techniques, Datasets, and Challengescited by 3
  6. 2022Anti-Asian Hate Speech Detection via Data Augmented Semantic Relation Inferencecited by 2
  7. 2022Is It Worth the (Environmental) Cost? Limited Evidence for Temporal Adaptation via Continuous Trainingcited by 2
  8. 2023Mitigating Bias in Conversations: A Hate Speech Classifier and Debiaser with Promptscited by 2
  9. 2023Towards a Unified Framework for Adaptable Problematic Content Detection via Continual Learningcited by 2
  10. 2024MasonPerplexity at Multimodal Hate Speech Event Detection 2024: Hate Speech and Target Detection Using Transformer Ensemblescited by 2
  11. 2024A Federated Approach to Few-Shot Hate Speech Detection for Marginalized Communitiescited by 2
  12. 2025Effectiveness of Counter-Speech against Abusive Content: A Multidimensional Annotation and Classification Studycited by 2
  13. 2025Bridging Gaps in Hate Speech Detection: Meta-Collections and Benchmarks for Low-Resource Iberian Languagescited by 2
  14. 2022Political Communities on Twitter: Case Study of the 2022 French Presidential Electioncited by 1
  15. 2022O-Dang! The Ontology of Dangerous Speech Messagescited by 1
  16. 2023Sociocultural knowledge is needed for selection of shots in hate speech detection taskscited by 1
  17. 2023Studying Socially Unacceptable Discourse Classification (SUD) through different eyes: "Are we on the same page ?"cited by 1
  18. 2024FarExStance: Explainable Stance Detection for Farsicited by 1
  19. 2025Tracking the Takes and Trajectories of English-Language News Narratives across Trustworthy and Worrisome Websitescited by 1
  20. 2025Culture Matters in Toxic Language Detection in Persiancited by 1
  21. 2025Extending a Parliamentary Corpus with MPs' Tweets: Automatic Annotation and Evaluation Using MultiParTweetcited by 1
  22. 2023On the Challenges of Building Datasets for Hate Speech Detectioncited by 0
  23. 2023UstanceBR: a social media language resource for stance predictioncited by 0
  24. 2024Willkommens-Merkel, Chaos-Johnson, and Tore-Klose: Modeling the Evaluative Meaning of German Personal Name Compoundscited by 0
  25. 2024The Unappreciated Role of Intent in Algorithmic Moderation of Social Media Contentcited by 0
  26. 2024Analysis of Socially Unacceptable Discourse with Zero-shot Learningcited by 0
  27. 2024Hostility Detection in UK Politics: A Dataset on Online Abuse Targeting MPscited by 0
  28. 2025Towards a comprehensive taxonomy of online abusive language informed by machine leaningcited by 0
  29. 2025Web(er) of Hate: A Survey on How Hate Speech Is Typedcited by 0
  30. 2025WATCHED: A Web AI Agent Tool for Combating Hate Speech by Expanding Datacited by 0
  31. 2026Toward Generalized Cross-Lingual Hateful Language Detection with Web-Scale Data and Ensemble LLM Annotationscited by 0
  32. 2026From Specialization to Generalization: Instruction-tuned LLMs for Robust Harmful Content Mitigationcited by 0
  33. 2026Are You Thinking What I am Thinking? : Examining Conceptual Separation in Neural Architecturescited by 0