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Challenges and Strategies in Cross-Cultural NLP

arXiv 2203.10020 ↗First posted 18 Mar 2022cs.CLcited by 216

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Abstract (arXiv)

Various efforts in the Natural Language Processing (NLP) community have been made to accommodate linguistic diversity and serve speakers of many different languages. However, it is important to acknowledge that speakers and the content they produce and require, vary not just by language, but also by culture. Although language and culture are tightly linked, there are important differences. Analogous to cross-lingual and multilingual NLP, cross-cultural and multicultural NLP considers these differences in order to better serve users of NLP systems. We propose a principled framework to frame these efforts, and survey existing and potential strategies.

Key facts. Cited by 216 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 68 of its 168 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 18 Mar 2022.

Builds on

68 of 168 references.

References · 68

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38 more
  1. 2018Fairness Without Demographics in Repeated Loss Minimizationcited by 363
  2. 2020AraBERT: Transformer-based Model for Arabic Language Understandingcited by 359
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50 most cited of 68 All 68 (JSON)

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Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2022: 11; 2023: 35; 2024: 61; 2025: 56; 2026: 53.

216 papers.

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  1. 2023The Belebele Benchmark: a Parallel Reading Comprehension Dataset in 122 Language Variantscited by 300
  2. 2023Assessing Cross-Cultural Alignment between ChatGPT and Human Societies: An Empirical Studycited by 203
  3. 2024BLEnD: A Benchmark for LLMs on Everyday Knowledge in Diverse Cultures and Languagescited by 171
  4. 2024Towards Measuring and Modeling "Culture" in LLMs: A Surveycited by 166
  5. 2023Having Beer after Prayer? Measuring Cultural Bias in Large Language Modelscited by 153
  6. 2022Probing Pre-Trained Language Models for Cross-Cultural Differences in Valuescited by 147
  7. 2022The 'Problem' of Human Label Variation: On Ground Truth in Data, Modeling and Evaluationcited by 133
  8. 2024Benchmarking Vision Language Models for Cultural Understandingcited by 100
  9. 2023Language Model Behavior: A Comprehensive Surveycited by 92
  10. 2023NLPositionality: Characterizing Design Biases of Datasets and Modelscited by 91
  11. 2022Language Generation Models Can Cause Harm: So What Can We Do About It? An Actionable Surveycited by 80
  12. 2023AceGPT, Localizing Large Language Models in Arabiccited by 75
38 more
  1. 2024PERSONA: A Reproducible Testbed for Pluralistic Alignmentcited by 71
  2. 2023BUFFET: Benchmarking Large Language Models for Few-shot Cross-lingual Transfercited by 68
  3. 2024The Multilingual Alignment Prism: Aligning Global and Local Preferences to Reduce Harmcited by 67
  4. 2023SeeGULL: A Stereotype Benchmark with Broad Geo-Cultural Coverage Leveraging Generative Modelscited by 66
  5. 2024Massively Multi-Cultural Knowledge Acquisition & LM Benchmarkingcited by 63
  6. 2024AI Suggestions Homogenize Writing Toward Western Styles and Diminish Cultural Nuancescited by 59
  7. 2023Benchmarking Machine Translation with Cultural Awarenesscited by 53
  8. 2022Characteristics of Harmful Text: Towards Rigorous Benchmarking of Language Modelscited by 49
  9. 2024Multilingual Large Language Model: A Survey of Resources, Taxonomy and Frontierscited by 49
  10. 2023Multi-lingual and Multi-cultural Figurative Language Understandingcited by 47
  11. 2025Culture is Not Trivia: Sociocultural Theory for Cultural NLPcited by 40
  12. 2024IndoCulture: Exploring Geographically-Influenced Cultural Commonsense Reasoning Across Eleven Indonesian Provincescited by 38
  13. 2024Evaluating Cultural Adaptability of a Large Language Model via Simulation of Synthetic Personascited by 36
  14. 2022Speaking Multiple Languages Affects the Moral Bias of Language Modelscited by 34
  15. 2023Are Multilingual LLMs Culturally-Diverse Reasoners? An Investigation into Multicultural Proverbs and Sayingscited by 32
  16. 2024CaLMQA: Exploring culturally specific long-form question answering across 23 languagescited by 31
  17. 2024Self-Pluralising Culture Alignment for Large Language Modelscited by 31
  18. 2024Beyond Aesthetics: Cultural Competence in Text-to-Image Modelscited by 30
  19. 2024CulturalTeaming: AI-Assisted Interactive Red-Teaming for Challenging LLMs' (Lack of) Multicultural Knowledgecited by 28
  20. 2024CulturalBench: A Robust, Diverse, and Challenging Cultural Benchmark by Human-AI CulturalTeamingcited by 27
  21. 2025BRIGHTER: BRIdging the Gap in Human-Annotated Textual Emotion Recognition Datasets for 28 Languagescited by 27
  22. 2023Ethical Considerations for Machine Translation of Indigenous Languages: Giving a Voice to the Speakerscited by 26
  23. 2023Disentangling Perceptions of Offensiveness: Cultural and Moral Correlatescited by 26
  24. 2024Reuse Your Rewards: Reward Model Transfer for Zero-Shot Cross-Lingual Alignmentcited by 26
  25. 2024Culturally Aware and Adapted NLP: A Taxonomy and a Survey of the State of the Artcited by 26
  26. 2025Break the Checkbox: Challenging Closed-Style Evaluations of Cultural Alignment in LLMscited by 26
  27. 2022Beyond Counting Datasets: A Survey of Multilingual Dataset Construction and Necessary Resourcescited by 25
  28. 2024Extrinsic Evaluation of Cultural Competence in Large Language Modelscited by 24
  29. 2024Exploring Multilingual Concepts of Human Value in Large Language Models: Is Value Alignment Consistent, Transferable and Controllable across Languages?cited by 23
  30. 2024DOSA: A Dataset of Social Artifacts from Different Indian Geographical Subculturescited by 23
  31. 2023What's the Meaning of Superhuman Performance in Today's NLU?cited by 22
  32. 2022Cultural Incongruencies in Artificial Intelligencecited by 21
  33. 2023Cross-Cultural Transfer Learning for Chinese Offensive Language Detectioncited by 21
  34. 2024Advancing Social Intelligence in AI Agents: Technical Challenges and Open Questionscited by 21
  35. 2024Towards Cross-Cultural Machine Translation with Retrieval-Augmented Generation from Multilingual Knowledge Graphscited by 21
  36. 2025From Calibration to Collaboration: LLM Uncertainty Quantification Should Be More Human-Centeredcited by 21
  37. 2023Modeling Cross-Cultural Pragmatic Inference with Codenames Duetcited by 20
  38. 2024The Potential and Challenges of Evaluating Attitudes, Opinions, and Values in Large Language Modelscited by 19

50 most cited of 216 All 216 (JSON)