mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

ReEvo: Large Language Models as Hyper-Heuristics with Reflective Evolution

arXiv 2402.01145 ↗First posted 2 Feb 2024cs.NE cs.AIcited by 266

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Cited by 34 in LLM agents and tool use, but placed by its own abstract, which didn’t fit.

Abstract (arXiv)

The omnipresence of NP-hard combinatorial optimization problems (COPs) compels domain experts to engage in trial-and-error heuristic design. The long-standing endeavor of design automation has gained new momentum with the rise of large language models (LLMs). This paper introduces Language Hyper-Heuristics (LHHs), an emerging variant of Hyper-Heuristics that leverages LLMs for heuristic generation, featuring minimal manual intervention and open-ended heuristic spaces. To empower LHHs, we present Reflective Evolution (ReEvo), a novel integration of evolutionary search for efficiently exploring the heuristic space, and LLM reflections to provide verbal gradients within the space. Across five heterogeneous algorithmic types, six different COPs, and both white-box and black-box views of COPs, ReEvo yields state-of-the-art and competitive meta-heuristics, evolutionary algorithms, heuristics, and neural solvers, while being more sample-efficient than prior LHHs.

Key facts. Cited by 266 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 61 of its 112 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 2 Feb 2024.

Builds on

61 of 112 references.

References · 61

  1. 2023Reflexion: Language Agents with Verbal Reinforcement Learningcited by 4,064
  2. 2023Self-Refine: Iterative Refinement with Self-Feedbackcited by 3,317
  3. 2023A Survey of Large Language Modelscited by 2,537
  4. 2023A Survey on Large Language Model based Autonomous Agentscited by 2,203
  5. 2022Competition-Level Code Generation with AlphaCodecited by 1,427
  6. 2023The Rise and Potential of Large Language Model Based Agents: A Surveycited by 1,422
  7. 2022Code as Policies: Language Model Programs for Embodied Controlcited by 1,172
  8. 2022Large Language Models Are Human-Level Prompt Engineerscited by 1,020
  9. 2023Teaching Large Language Models to Self-Debugcited by 963
  10. 2023Large Language Models as Optimizerscited by 830
  11. 2018Attention, Learn to Solve Routing Problems!cited by 646
  12. 2023Automatic Prompt Optimization with "Gradient Descent" and Beam Searchcited by 628
38 more
  1. 2018Machine Learning for Combinatorial Optimization: a Methodological Tour d'Horizoncited by 612
  2. 2023Eureka: Human-Level Reward Design via Coding Large Language Modelscited by 542
  3. 2020POMO: Policy Optimization with Multiple Optima for Reinforcement Learningcited by 341
  4. 2024Evolution of Heuristics: Towards Efficient Automatic Algorithm Design Using Large Language Modelcited by 258
  5. 2023AI Alignment: A Comprehensive Surveycited by 256
  6. 2023Can Language Models Solve Graph Problems in Natural Language?cited by 249
  7. 2023InterCode: Standardizing and Benchmarking Interactive Coding with Execution Feedbackcited by 229
  8. 2023PromptAgent: Strategic Planning with Language Models Enables Expert-level Prompt Optimizationcited by 226
  9. 2023DIFUSCO: Graph-based Diffusion Solvers for Combinatorial Optimizationcited by 216
  10. 2023Planning with Large Language Models for Code Generationcited by 179
  11. 2023Neural Combinatorial Optimization with Heavy Decoder: Toward Large Scale Generalizationcited by 140
  12. 2022Evolution through Large Modelscited by 131
  13. 2023EvoPrompting: Language Models for Code-Level Neural Architecture Searchcited by 129
  14. 2023Self-Taught Optimizer (STOP): Recursively Self-Improving Code Generationcited by 128
  15. 2023Large Language Models as Evolutionary Optimizerscited by 122
  16. 2023GenSim: Generating Robotic Simulation Tasks via Large Language Modelscited by 120
  17. 2023Language Model Crossover: Variation through Few-Shot Promptingcited by 119
  18. 2022Sym-NCO: Leveraging Symmetricity for Neural Combinatorial Optimizationcited by 118
  19. 2023Learning Performance-Improving Code Editscited by 103
  20. 2020Learning the Travelling Salesperson Problem Requires Rethinking Generalizationcited by 96
  21. 2024Evolutionary Computation in the Era of Large Language Model: Survey and Roadmapcited by 89
  22. 2021Learning Collaborative Policies to Solve NP-hard Routing Problemscited by 86
  23. 2023GLOP: Learning Global Partition and Local Construction for Solving Large-scale Routing Problems in Real-timecited by 82
  24. 2023Learning to Search Feasible and Infeasible Regions of Routing Problems with Flexible Neural k-Optcited by 81
  25. 2023BQ-NCO: Bisimulation Quotienting for Efficient Neural Combinatorial Optimizationcited by 80
  26. 2023DeepACO: Neural-enhanced Ant Systems for Combinatorial Optimizationcited by 77
  27. 2021Graph Neural Network Guided Local Search for the Traveling Salesperson Problemcited by 70
  28. 2023Towards Generalizable Neural Solvers for Vehicle Routing Problems via Ensemble with Transferrable Local Policycited by 61
  29. 2023Algorithm Evolution Using Large Language Modelcited by 52
  30. 2023Pointerformer: Deep Reinforced Multi-Pointer Transformer for the Traveling Salesman Problemcited by 49
  31. 2023Local Search GFlowNetscited by 45
  32. 2024Evolving Code with A Large Language Modelcited by 42
  33. 2023MetaBox: A Benchmark Platform for Meta-Black-Box Optimization with Reinforcement Learningcited by 35
  34. 2022Large Language Models can Implement Policy Iterationcited by 31
  35. 2023Fully Autonomous Programming with Large Language Modelscited by 31
  36. 2023Large Language Model for Multi-objective Evolutionary Optimizationcited by 29
  37. 2022How Good Is Neural Combinatorial Optimization? A Systematic Evaluation on the Traveling Salesman Problemcited by 27
  38. 2023ASP: Learn a Universal Neural Solver!cited by 27

50 most cited of 61 All 61 (JSON)

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Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2024: 21; 2025: 98; 2026: 147.

266 papers.

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  1. 2025AlphaEvolve: A coding agent for scientific and algorithmic discoverycited by 763
  2. 2025Towards Large Reasoning Models: A Survey of Reinforced Reasoning with Large Language Modelscited by 291
  3. 2025Monte Carlo Tree Search for Comprehensive Exploration in LLM-Based Automatic Heuristic Designcited by 100
  4. 2024HSEvo: Elevating Automatic Heuristic Design with Diversity-Driven Harmony Search and Genetic Algorithm Using LLMscited by 68
  5. 2024A Systematic Survey on Large Language Models for Algorithm Designcited by 65
  6. 2025Evolving Deeper LLM Thinkingcited by 58
  7. 2024RouteFinder: Towards Foundation Models for Vehicle Routing Problemscited by 54
  8. 2024Multi-objective Evolution of Heuristic Using Large Language Modelcited by 52
  9. 2026AdaEvolve: Adaptive LLM Driven Zeroth-Order Optimizationcited by 46
  10. 2026EvoX: Meta-Evolution for Automated Discoverycited by 45
  11. 2026Meta Context Engineering via Agentic Skill Evolutioncited by 42
  12. 2025CodeEvolve: an open source evolutionary coding agent for algorithmic discovery and optimizationcited by 37
38 more
  1. 2024LLM4AD: A Platform for Algorithm Design with Large Language Modelcited by 33
  2. 2025EoH-S: Evolution of Heuristic Set using LLMs for Automated Heuristic Designcited by 32
  3. 2025ALE-Bench: A Benchmark for Long-Horizon Objective-Driven Algorithm Engineeringcited by 30
  4. 2025CO-Bench: Benchmarking Language Model Agents in Algorithm Search for Combinatorial Optimizationcited by 28
  5. 2025Large Language Models as End-to-end Combinatorial Optimization Solverscited by 27
  6. 2025StepORLM: A Self-Evolving Framework With Generative Process Supervision For Operations Research Language Modelscited by 26
  7. 2024RAG and RAU: A Survey on Retrieval-Augmented Language Model in Natural Language Processingcited by 25
  8. 2024Neural Combinatorial Optimization Algorithms for Solving Vehicle Routing Problems: A Comprehensive Survey with Perspectivescited by 23
  9. 2024Understanding the Importance of Evolutionary Search in Automated Heuristic Design with Large Language Modelscited by 22
  10. 2024Self-Guiding Exploration for Combinatorial Problemscited by 21
  11. 2024ValueBench: Towards Comprehensively Evaluating Value Orientations and Understanding of Large Language Modelscited by 19
  12. 2025HeuriGym: An Agentic Benchmark for LLM-Crafted Heuristics in Combinatorial Optimizationcited by 19
  13. 2025HeurAgenix: Leveraging LLMs for Solving Complex Combinatorial Optimization Challengescited by 19
  14. 2026AVO: Agentic Variation Operators for Autonomous Evolutionary Searchcited by 19
  15. 2024AutoSAT: Automatically Optimize SAT Solvers via Large Language Modelscited by 14
  16. 2025CoCoEvo: Co-Evolution of Programs and Test Cases to Enhance Code Generationcited by 14
  17. 2025Planning of Heuristics: Strategic Planning on Large Language Models with Monte Carlo Tree Search for Automating Heuristic Optimizationcited by 13
  18. 2025HiFo-Prompt: Prompting with Hindsight and Foresight for LLM-based Automatic Heuristic Designcited by 13
  19. 2025Improving Generalization of Neural Combinatorial Optimization for Vehicle Routing Problems via Test-Time Projection Learningcited by 12
  20. 2025AlphaOPT: Formulating Optimization Programs with Self-Improving LLM Experience Librarycited by 12
  21. 2025FrontierCO: Real-World and Large-Scale Evaluation of Machine Learning Solvers for Combinatorial Optimizationcited by 10
  22. 2025EvoGit: Decentralized Code Evolution via Git-Based Multi-Agent Collaborationcited by 9
  23. 2025A Systematic Survey on Large Language Models for Evolutionary Optimization: From Modeling to Solvingcited by 9
  24. 2024Bridging Large Language Models and Optimization: A Unified Framework for Text-attributed Combinatorial Optimizationcited by 8
  25. 2025Fitness Landscape of Large Language Model-Assisted Automated Algorithm Searchcited by 8
  26. 2025Multimodal LLM-assisted Evolutionary Search for Programmatic Control Policiescited by 8
  27. 2025EvoCut: Strengthening Integer Programs via Evolution-Guided Language Modelscited by 8
  28. 2024Ensembling Prioritized Hybrid Policies for Multi-agent Pathfindingcited by 7
  29. 2024PARCO: Parallel AutoRegressive Models for Multi-Agent Combinatorial Optimizationcited by 7
  30. 2024Using Large Language Models for Parametric Shape Optimizationcited by 7
  31. 2025Successor-Generator Planning with LLM-generated Heuristicscited by 7
  32. 2025Generalizable Heuristic Generation Through LLMs with Meta-Optimizationcited by 7
  33. 2025MOTIF: Multi-strategy Optimization via Turn-based Interactive Frameworkcited by 7
  34. 2025URS: A Unified Neural Routing Solver for Cross-Problem Zero-Shot Generalizationcited by 7
  35. 2026G-LNS: Generative Large Neighborhood Search for LLM-Based Automatic Heuristic Designcited by 7
  36. 2026Resource-Efficient Iterative LLM-Based NAS with Feedback Memorycited by 7
  37. 2024Can Large Language Models Solve Robot Routing?cited by 6
  38. 2025ExLLM: Experience-Enhanced LLM Optimization for Molecular Design and Beyondcited by 6

50 most cited of 266 All 266 (JSON)