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Towards Leaving No Indic Language Behind: Building Monolingual Corpora, Benchmark and Models for Indic Languages

arXiv 2212.05409 ↗First posted 11 Dec 2022cs.CLcited by 99

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Abstract (arXiv)

Building Natural Language Understanding (NLU) capabilities for Indic languages, which have a collective speaker base of more than one billion speakers is absolutely crucial. In this work, we aim to improve the NLU capabilities of Indic languages by making contributions along 3 important axes (i) monolingual corpora (ii) NLU testsets (iii) multilingual LLMs focusing on Indic languages. Specifically, we curate the largest monolingual corpora, IndicCorp, with 20.9B tokens covering 24 languages from 4 language families - a 2.3x increase over prior work, while supporting 12 additional languages. Next, we create a human-supervised benchmark, IndicXTREME, consisting of nine diverse NLU tasks covering 20 languages. Across languages and tasks, IndicXTREME contains a total of 105 evaluation sets, of which 52 are new contributions to the literature. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first effort towards creating a standard benchmark for Indic languages that aims to test the multilingual zero-shot capabilities of pretrained language models. Finally, we train IndicBERT v2, a state-of-the-art model supporting all the languages. Averaged across languages and tasks, the model achieves an absolute improvement of 2 points over a strong baseline. The data and models are available at https://github.com/AI4Bharat/IndicBERT.

Key facts. Cited by 99 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 35 of its 52 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 11 Dec 2022.

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35 of 52 references.

References · 35

  1. 2018BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understandingcited by 40,204
  2. 2019RoBERTa: A Robustly Optimized BERT Pretraining Approachcited by 13,266
  3. 2018GLUE: A Multi-Task Benchmark and Analysis Platform for Natural Language Understandingcited by 4,854
  4. 2016SQuAD: 100,000+ Questions for Machine Comprehension of Textcited by 4,115
  5. 2019Unsupervised Cross-lingual Representation Learning at Scalecited by 3,907
  6. 2019ALBERT: A Lite BERT for Self-supervised Learning of Language Representationscited by 2,772
  7. 2017A Broad-Coverage Challenge Corpus for Sentence Understanding through Inferencecited by 2,665
  8. 2020mT5: A massively multilingual pre-trained text-to-text transformercited by 1,813
  9. 2019SuperGLUE: A Stickier Benchmark for General-Purpose Language Understanding Systemscited by 1,718
  10. 2016Google's Neural Machine Translation System: Bridging the Gap between Human and Machine Translationcited by 1,471
  11. 2022No Language Left Behind: Scaling Human-Centered Machine Translationcited by 1,290
  12. 2019Cross-lingual Language Model Pretrainingcited by 1,088
23 more
  1. 2018XNLI: Evaluating Cross-lingual Sentence Representationscited by 913
  2. 2020The State and Fate of Linguistic Diversity and Inclusion in the NLP Worldcited by 789
  3. 2020XTREME: A Massively Multilingual Multi-task Benchmark for Evaluating Cross-lingual Generalizationcited by 738
  4. 2021The FLORES-101 Evaluation Benchmark for Low-Resource and Multilingual Machine Translationcited by 556
  5. 2019MLQA: Evaluating Cross-lingual Extractive Question Answeringcited by 339
  6. 2019PAWS-X: A Cross-lingual Adversarial Dataset for Paraphrase Identificationcited by 262
  7. 2020XGLUE: A New Benchmark Dataset for Cross-lingual Pre-training, Understanding and Generationcited by 221
  8. 2021MuRIL: Multilingual Representations for Indian Languagescited by 177
  9. 2021XTREME-R: Towards More Challenging and Nuanced Multilingual Evaluationcited by 167
  10. 2019Choosing Transfer Languages for Cross-Lingual Learningcited by 143
  11. 2020The Multilingual Amazon Reviews Corpuscited by 142
  12. 2022MASSIVE: A 1M-Example Multilingual Natural Language Understanding Dataset with 51 Typologically-Diverse Languagescited by 142
  13. 2021Samanantar: The Largest Publicly Available Parallel Corpora Collection for 11 Indic Languagescited by 133
  14. 2021Machine Translationese: Effects of Algorithmic Bias on Linguistic Complexity in Machine Translationcited by 70
  15. 2021A Primer on Pretrained Multilingual Language Modelscited by 49
  16. 2021Revisiting the Primacy of English in Zero-shot Cross-lingual Transfercited by 47
  17. 2020PMIndia -- A Collection of Parallel Corpora of Languages of Indiacited by 40
  18. 2021IndicBART: A Pre-trained Model for Indic Natural Language Generationcited by 39
  19. 2020Processing South Asian Languages Written in the Latin Script: the Dakshina Datasetcited by 35
  20. 2022IndicXNLI: Evaluating Multilingual Inference for Indian Languagescited by 26
  21. 2021AfroMT: Pretraining Strategies and Reproducible Benchmarks for Translation of 8 African Languagescited by 24
  22. 2021Exploiting Language Relatedness for Low Web-Resource Language Model Adaptation: An Indic Languages Studycited by 19
  23. 2021Minimax and Neyman-Pearson Meta-Learning for Outlier Languagescited by 10

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Citing papers per year: 2023: 11; 2024: 37; 2025: 28; 2026: 23.

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  1. 2024Aya Model: An Instruction Finetuned Open-Access Multilingual Language Modelcited by 292
  2. 2024Aya Dataset: An Open-Access Collection for Multilingual Instruction Tuningcited by 174
  3. 2023SIB-200: A Simple, Inclusive, and Big Evaluation Dataset for Topic Classification in 200+ Languages and Dialectscited by 149
  4. 2024CLIcK: A Benchmark Dataset of Cultural and Linguistic Intelligence in Koreancited by 65
  5. 2023MEGAVERSE: Benchmarking Large Language Models Across Languages, Modalities, Models and Taskscited by 57
  6. 2024IndicGenBench: A Multilingual Benchmark to Evaluate Generation Capabilities of LLMs on Indic Languagescited by 55
  7. 2024IndicLLMSuite: A Blueprint for Creating Pre-training and Fine-Tuning Datasets for Indian Languagescited by 52
  8. 2024PARIKSHA: A Large-Scale Investigation of Human-LLM Evaluator Agreement on Multilingual and Multi-Cultural Datacited by 37
  9. 2024Airavata: Introducing Hindi Instruction-tuned LLMcited by 32
  10. 2024IndiBias: A Benchmark Dataset to Measure Social Biases in Language Models for Indian Contextcited by 32
  11. 2024RomanSetu: Efficiently unlocking multilingual capabilities of Large Language Models via Romanizationcited by 29
  12. 2024Evaluating the Elementary Multilingual Capabilities of Large Language Models with MultiQcited by 27
38 more
  1. 2024MEXA: Multilingual Evaluation of English-Centric LLMs via Cross-Lingual Alignmentcited by 25
  2. 2024INDIC QA BENCHMARK: A Multilingual Benchmark to Evaluate Question Answering capability of LLMs for Indic Languagescited by 24
  3. 2024Adapting Multilingual LLMs to Low-Resource Languages using Continued Pre-training and Synthetic Corpuscited by 24
  4. 2024Exploring Design Choices for Building Language-Specific LLMscited by 22
  5. 2024An Empirical Comparison of Vocabulary Expansion and Initialization Approaches for Language Modelscited by 20
  6. 2024Unlocking the Potential of Model Merging for Low-Resource Languagescited by 19
  7. 2024Multilingual Large Language Models: A Systematic Surveycited by 18
  8. 2024Akal Badi ya Bias: An Exploratory Study of Gender Bias in Hindi Language Technologycited by 17
  9. 2024Cross-Lingual Auto Evaluation for Assessing Multilingual LLMscited by 17
  10. 2023BHASA: A Holistic Southeast Asian Linguistic and Cultural Evaluation Suite for Large Language Modelscited by 16
  11. 2023Bhasha-Abhijnaanam: Native-script and romanized Language Identification for 22 Indic languagescited by 13
  12. 2025DRISHTIKON: A Multimodal Multilingual Benchmark for Testing Language Models' Understanding on Indian Culturecited by 13
  13. 2025Tokenization Matters: Improving Zero-Shot NER for Indic Languagescited by 12
  14. 2023Large Human Language Models: A Need and the Challengescited by 11
  15. 2024L3Cube-IndicQuest: A Benchmark Question Answering Dataset for Evaluating Knowledge of LLMs in Indic Contextcited by 10
  16. 2025Llama-3-Nanda-10B-Chat: An Open Generative Large Language Model for Hindicited by 10
  17. 2025Krutrim LLM: Multilingual Foundational Model for over a Billion Peoplecited by 9
  18. 2025Rethinking Tokenization for Rich Morphology: The Dominance of Unigram over BPE and Morphological Alignmentcited by 9
  19. 2023A Comprehensive Analysis of Adapter Efficiencycited by 8
  20. 2024Cost-Performance Optimization for Processing Low-Resource Language Tasks Using Commercial LLMscited by 7
  21. 2023PuoBERTa: Training and evaluation of a curated language model for Setswanacited by 6
  22. 2024Pretraining Language Models Using Translationesecited by 6
  23. 2024Too Late to Train, Too Early To Use? A Study on Necessity and Viability of Low-Resource Bengali LLMscited by 6
  24. 2025Quantifying Language Disparities in Multilingual Large Language Modelscited by 6
  25. 2025Bhaasha, Bhasa, Zaban: A Survey for Low-Resourced Languages in South Asia -- Current Stage and Challengescited by 6
  26. 2024Soft Language Prompts for Language Transfercited by 5
  27. 2024Development of Pre-Trained Transformer-based Models for the Nepali Languagecited by 5
  28. 2025Batayan: A Filipino NLP benchmark for evaluating Large Language Modelscited by 5
  29. 2023MC2: Towards Transparent and Culturally-Aware NLP for Minority Languages in Chinacited by 4
  30. 2024BEnQA: A Question Answering and Reasoning Benchmark for Bengali and Englishcited by 4
  31. 2024Decoding the Diversity: A Review of the Indic AI Research Landscapecited by 4
  32. 2025Multilingual Question Answering in Low-Resource Settings: A Dzongkha-English Benchmark for Foundation Modelscited by 4
  33. 2023Hate Speech and Offensive Content Detection in Indo-Aryan Languages: A Battle of LSTM and Transformerscited by 3
  34. 2024Kalahi: A handcrafted, grassroots cultural LLM evaluation suite for Filipinocited by 3
  35. 2025MENLO: From Preferences to Proficiency -- Evaluating and Modeling Native-like Quality Across 47 Languagescited by 3
  36. 2025Pragyaan: Designing and Curating High-Quality Cultural Post-Training Datasets for Indian Languagescited by 3
  37. 2026Zero-shot Large Language Models for Automatic Readability Assessmentcited by 3
  38. 2023The Less the Merrier? Investigating Language Representation in Multilingual Modelscited by 2

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