mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

One Country, 700+ Languages: NLP Challenges for Underrepresented Languages and Dialects in Indonesia

arXiv 2203.13357 ↗First posted 24 Mar 2022cs.CLcited by 65

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Abstract (arXiv)

NLP research is impeded by a lack of resources and awareness of the challenges presented by underrepresented languages and dialects. Focusing on the languages spoken in Indonesia, the second most linguistically diverse and the fourth most populous nation of the world, we provide an overview of the current state of NLP research for Indonesia's 700+ languages. We highlight challenges in Indonesian NLP and how these affect the performance of current NLP systems. Finally, we provide general recommendations to help develop NLP technology not only for languages of Indonesia but also other underrepresented languages.

Key facts. Cited by 65 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 69 of its 213 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 24 Mar 2022.

Builds on

69 of 213 references.

References · 69

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50 most cited of 69 All 69 (JSON)

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Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2022: 8; 2023: 19; 2024: 15; 2025: 16; 2026: 7.

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  1. 2023A Multitask, Multilingual, Multimodal Evaluation of ChatGPT on Reasoning, Hallucination, and Interactivitycited by 888
  2. 2023Bactrian-X: Multilingual Replicable Instruction-Following Models with Low-Rank Adaptationcited by 79
  3. 2023BUFFET: Benchmarking Large Language Models for Few-shot Cross-lingual Transfercited by 68
  4. 2024LLMs Are Few-Shot In-Context Low-Resource Language Learnerscited by 68
  5. 2022NusaX: Multilingual Parallel Sentiment Dataset for 10 Indonesian Local Languagescited by 67
  6. 2023Prompting Multilingual Large Language Models to Generate Code-Mixed Texts: The Case of South East Asian Languagescited by 50
  7. 2023Multi-lingual and Multi-cultural Figurative Language Understandingcited by 47
  8. 2024SEACrowd: A Multilingual Multimodal Data Hub and Benchmark Suite for Southeast Asian Languagescited by 41
  9. 2022SERENGETI: Massively Multilingual Language Models for Africacited by 40
  10. 2024Natural Language Processing for Dialects of a Language: A Surveycited by 40
  11. 2022NusaCrowd: Open Source Initiative for Indonesian NLP Resourcescited by 38
  12. 2024IndoCulture: Exploring Geographically-Influenced Cultural Commonsense Reasoning Across Eleven Indonesian Provincescited by 38
38 more
  1. 2024Can LLM Generate Culturally Relevant Commonsense QA Data? Case Study in Indonesian and Sundanesecited by 36
  2. 2022The Decades Progress on Code-Switching Research in NLP: A Systematic Survey on Trends and Challengescited by 35
  3. 2024SeaLLMs 3: Open Foundation and Chat Multilingual Large Language Models for Southeast Asian Languagescited by 35
  4. 2023Quantifying the Dialect Gap and its Correlates Across Languagescited by 33
  5. 2024Improving Machine Translation with Human Feedback: An Exploration of Quality Estimation as a Reward Modelcited by 33
  6. 2023InstructAlign: High-and-Low Resource Language Alignment via Continual Crosslingual Instruction Tuningcited by 21
  7. 2023A Material Lens on Coloniality in NLPcited by 19
  8. 2023Fairness in Language Models Beyond English: Gaps and Challengescited by 16
  9. 2023A Survey of Corpora for Germanic Low-Resource Languages and Dialectscited by 16
  10. 2023Representativeness as a Forgotten Lesson for Multilingual and Code-switched Data Collection and Preparationcited by 16
  11. 2023What makes a language easy to deep-learn? Deep neural networks and humans similarly benefit from compositional structurecited by 13
  12. 2024Voices Unheard: NLP Resources and Models for Yor`ub'a Regional Dialectscited by 11
  13. 2025The Multilingual Divide and Its Impact on Global AI Safetycited by 10
  14. 2025Crowdsource, Crawl, or Generate? Creating SEA-VL, a Multicultural Vision-Language Dataset for Southeast Asiacited by 8
  15. 2025HKCanto-Eval: A Benchmark for Evaluating Cantonese Language Understanding and Cultural Comprehension in LLMscited by 8
  16. 2022Multilingual Relation Classification via Efficient and Effective Promptingcited by 7
  17. 2024Linguistics Theory Meets LLM: Code-Switched Text Generation via Equivalence Constrained Large Language Modelscited by 6
  18. 2025Bhaasha, Bhasa, Zaban: A Survey for Low-Resourced Languages in South Asia -- Current Stage and Challengescited by 6
  19. 2023IndoRobusta: Towards Robustness Against Diverse Code-Mixed Indonesian Local Languagescited by 5
  20. 2025LoraxBench: A Multitask, Multilingual Benchmark Suite for 20 Indonesian Languagescited by 5
  21. 2022Rethinking Round-Trip Translation for Machine Translation Evaluationcited by 4
  22. 2023Lexical Diversity in Kinship Across Languages and Dialectscited by 4
  23. 2023NusaWrites: Constructing High-Quality Corpora for Underrepresented and Extremely Low-Resource Languagescited by 4
  24. 2025NusaAksara: A Multimodal and Multilingual Benchmark for Preserving Indonesian Indigenous Scriptscited by 4
  25. 2024Constructing and Expanding Low-Resource and Underrepresented Parallel Datasets for Indonesian Local Languagescited by 3
  26. 2024How Well Do LLMs Handle Cantonese? Benchmarking Cantonese Capabilities of Large Language Modelscited by 3
  27. 2024SailCompass: Towards Reproducible and Robust Evaluation for Southeast Asian Languagescited by 3
  28. 2025Designing Speech Technologies for Australian Aboriginal English: Opportunities, Risks and Participationcited by 3
  29. 2025SEADialogues: A Multilingual Culturally Grounded Multi-turn Dialogue Dataset on Southeast Asian Languagescited by 3
  30. 2022NusaCrowd: A Call for Open and Reproducible NLP Research in Indonesian Languagescited by 2
  31. 2023CebuaNER: A New Baseline Cebuano Named Entity Recognition Modelcited by 2
  32. 2023IndoToD: A Multi-Domain Indonesian Benchmark For End-to-End Task-Oriented Dialogue Systemscited by 2
  33. 2024Could We Have Had Better Multilingual LLMs If English Was Not the Central Language?cited by 2
  34. 2025In-context Language Learning for Endangered Languages in Speech Recognitioncited by 2
  35. 2025What Do Indonesians Really Need from Language Technology? A Nationwide Surveycited by 2
  36. 2022Location-based Twitter Filtering for the Creation of Low-Resource Language Datasets in Indonesian Local Languagescited by 1
  37. 2023AlbNER: A Corpus for Named Entity Recognition in Albaniancited by 1
  38. 2025Improving Informally Romanized Language Identificationcited by 1

50 most cited of 65 All 65 (JSON)