mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

Harms of Gender Exclusivity and Challenges in Non-Binary Representation in Language Technologies

arXiv 2108.12084 ↗First posted 27 Aug 2021cs.CL cs.AI cs.LGcited by 128

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Abstract (arXiv)

Gender is widely discussed in the context of language tasks and when examining the stereotypes propagated by language models. However, current discussions primarily treat gender as binary, which can perpetuate harms such as the cyclical erasure of non-binary gender identities. These harms are driven by model and dataset biases, which are consequences of the non-recognition and lack of understanding of non-binary genders in society. In this paper, we explain the complexity of gender and language around it, and survey non-binary persons to understand harms associated with the treatment of gender as binary in English language technologies. We also detail how current language representations (e.g., GloVe, BERT) capture and perpetuate these harms and related challenges that need to be acknowledged and addressed for representations to equitably encode gender information.

Key facts. Cited by 128 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 24 of its 56 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 27 Aug 2021.

Builds on

24 of 56 references.

References · 24

  1. 2018BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understandingcited by 40,204
  2. 2016Man is to Computer Programmer as Woman is to Homemaker? Debiasing Word Embeddingscited by 1,304
  3. 2020Language (Technology) is Power: A Critical Survey of "Bias" in NLPcited by 951
  4. 2016Semantics derived automatically from language corpora contain human-like biasescited by 894
  5. 2018Gender Bias in Coreference Resolution: Evaluation and Debiasing Methodscited by 657
  6. 2020Null It Out: Guarding Protected Attributes by Iterative Nullspace Projectioncited by 442
  7. 2018Gender Bias in Coreference Resolutioncited by 438
  8. 2017Men Also Like Shopping: Reducing Gender Bias Amplification using Corpus-level Constraintscited by 420
  9. 2018Fairness Without Demographics in Repeated Loss Minimizationcited by 363
  10. 2018AllenNLP: A Deep Semantic Natural Language Processing Platformcited by 347
  11. 2019Bias in Bios: A Case Study of Semantic Representation Bias in a High-Stakes Settingcited by 346
  12. 2019Mitigating Gender Bias in Natural Language Processing: Literature Reviewcited by 287
12 more
  1. 2019Gender Bias in Contextualized Word Embeddingscited by 203
  2. 2021Societal Biases in Language Generation: Progress and Challengescited by 201
  3. 2019Assessing Social and Intersectional Biases in Contextualized Word Representationscited by 134
  4. 2019On Measuring and Mitigating Biased Inferences of Word Embeddingscited by 112
  5. 2019Toward Gender-Inclusive Coreference Resolutioncited by 84
  6. 2019Attenuating Bias in Word Vectorscited by 64
  7. 2021They, Them, Theirs: Rewriting with Gender-Neutral Englishcited by 44
  8. 2020OSCaR: Orthogonal Subspace Correction and Rectification of Biases in Word Embeddingscited by 40
  9. 2019Man is to Person as Woman is to Location: Measuring Gender Bias in Named Entity Recognitioncited by 28
  10. 2016Shirtless and Dangerous: Quantifying Linguistic Signals of Gender Bias in an Online Fiction Writing Communitycited by 21
  11. 2021Adapting Coreference Resolution for Processing Violent Death Narrativescited by 3
  12. 2020The Geometry of Distributed Representations for Better Alignment, Attenuated Bias, and Improved Interpretabilitycited by 1

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Citing papers per year: 2021: 2; 2022: 31; 2023: 37; 2024: 28; 2025: 19; 2026: 11.

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  6. 2022MERLOT Reserve: Neural Script Knowledge through Vision and Language and Soundcited by 184
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  9. 2023Language Model Behavior: A Comprehensive Surveycited by 92
  10. 2023NLPositionality: Characterizing Design Biases of Datasets and Modelscited by 91
  11. 2022Theories of "Gender" in NLP Bias Researchcited by 62
  12. 2022Handling Bias in Toxic Speech Detection: A Surveycited by 60
38 more
  1. 2024Fairness in Large Language Models: A Taxonomic Surveycited by 57
  2. 2023"I'm fully who I am": Towards Centering Transgender and Non-Binary Voices to Measure Biases in Open Language Generationcited by 56
  3. 2023VisoGender: A dataset for benchmarking gender bias in image-text pronoun resolutioncited by 52
  4. 2022Perturbation Augmentation for Fairer NLPcited by 51
  5. 2024Evaluating Gender Bias in Large Language Models via Chain-of-Thought Promptingcited by 49
  6. 2022Debiasing isn't enough! -- On the Effectiveness of Debiasing MLMs and their Social Biases in Downstream Taskscited by 48
  7. 2022Welcome to the Modern World of Pronouns: Identity-Inclusive Natural Language Processing beyond Gendercited by 47
  8. 2023MISGENDERED: Limits of Large Language Models in Understanding Pronounscited by 43
  9. 2022Controllable Text Generation with Neurally-Decomposed Oraclecited by 41
  10. 2024Segment Any Text: A Universal Approach for Robust, Efficient and Adaptable Sentence Segmentationcited by 41
  11. 2022Mitigating Gender Bias in Distilled Language Models via Counterfactual Role Reversalcited by 40
  12. 2023Queer In AI: A Case Study in Community-Led Participatory AIcited by 33
  13. 2022The Tail Wagging the Dog: Dataset Construction Biases of Social Bias Benchmarkscited by 31
  14. 2024Large Language Models Portray Socially Subordinate Groups as More Homogeneous, Consistent with a Bias Observed in Humanscited by 31
  15. 2024GenderBias-VL: Benchmarking Gender Bias in Vision Language Models via Counterfactual Probingcited by 31
  16. 2022GeoMLAMA: Geo-Diverse Commonsense Probing on Multilingual Pre-Trained Language Modelscited by 30
  17. 2021Socially Aware Bias Measurements for Hindi Language Representationscited by 29
  18. 2022Choose Your Lenses: Flaws in Gender Bias Evaluationcited by 29
  19. 2022Causally Testing Gender Bias in LLMs: A Case Study on Occupational Biascited by 28
  20. 2022Text Style Transfer for Bias Mitigation using Masked Language Modelingcited by 27
  21. 2023Stereotypes and Smut: The (Mis)representation of Non-cisgender Identities by Text-to-Image Modelscited by 26
  22. 2023It Takes Two to Tango: Navigating Conceptualizations of NLP Tasks and Measurements of Performancecited by 25
  23. 2022Gender Bias in Word Embeddings: A Comprehensive Analysis of Frequency, Syntax, and Semanticscited by 24
  24. 2023Gender Biases in Automatic Evaluation Metrics for Image Captioningcited by 24
  25. 2024On Behalf of the Stakeholders: Trends in NLP Model Interpretability in the Era of LLMscited by 24
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  27. 2023Evaluating General-Purpose AI with Psychometricscited by 23
  28. 2023Gender Neutralization for an Inclusive Machine Translation: from Theoretical Foundations to Open Challengescited by 22
  29. 2024Stop! In the Name of Flaws: Disentangling Personal Names and Sociodemographic Attributes in NLPcited by 22
  30. 2021DS-TOD: Efficient Domain Specialization for Task Oriented Dialogcited by 21
  31. 2024AboutMe: Using Self-Descriptions in Webpages to Document the Effects of English Pretraining Data Filterscited by 21
  32. 2023Automated Ableism: An Exploration of Explicit Disability Biases in Sentiment and Toxicity Analysis Modelscited by 20
  33. 2023Hi Guys or Hi Folks? Benchmarking Gender-Neutral Machine Translation with the GeNTE Corpuscited by 20
  34. 2024The Colorful Future of LLMs: Evaluating and Improving LLMs as Emotional Supporters for Queer Youthcited by 20
  35. 2023What about em? How Commercial Machine Translation Fails to Handle (Neo-)Pronounscited by 19
  36. 2022Fair and Argumentative Language Modeling for Computational Argumentationcited by 18
  37. 2022Better Hit the Nail on the Head than Beat around the Bush: Removing Protected Attributes with a Single Projectioncited by 17
  38. 2024Robust Pronoun Fidelity with English LLMs: Are they Reasoning, Repeating, or Just Biased?cited by 17

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