mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

Question Answering for Privacy Policies: Combining Computational and Legal Perspectives

arXiv 1911.00841 ↗First posted 3 Nov 2019cs.CLcited by 65

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Abstract (arXiv)

Privacy policies are long and complex documents that are difficult for users to read and understand, and yet, they have legal effects on how user data is collected, managed and used. Ideally, we would like to empower users to inform themselves about issues that matter to them, and enable them to selectively explore those issues. We present PrivacyQA, a corpus consisting of 1750 questions about the privacy policies of mobile applications, and over 3500 expert annotations of relevant answers. We observe that a strong neural baseline underperforms human performance by almost 0.3 F1 on PrivacyQA, suggesting considerable room for improvement for future systems. Further, we use this dataset to shed light on challenges to question answerability, with domain-general implications for any question answering system. The PrivacyQA corpus offers a challenging corpus for question answering, with genuine real-world utility.

Key facts. Cited by 65 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 3 Nov 2019.

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Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2021: 7; 2022: 6; 2023: 7; 2024: 17; 2025: 15; 2026: 13.

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  1. 2021A Dataset of Information-Seeking Questions and Answers Anchored in Research Paperscited by 475
  2. 2021LexGLUE: A Benchmark Dataset for Legal Language Understanding in Englishcited by 302
  3. 2024LegalBench-RAG: A Benchmark for Retrieval-Augmented Generation in the Legal Domaincited by 113
  4. 2024The Art of Saying No: Contextual Noncompliance in Language Modelscited by 100
  5. 2022Multi-LexSum: Real-World Summaries of Civil Rights Lawsuits at Multiple Granularitiescited by 47
  6. 2022LEVEN: A Large-Scale Chinese Legal Event Detection Datasetcited by 36
  7. 2023Interpretable Long-Form Legal Question Answering with Retrieval-Augmented Large Language Modelscited by 35
  8. 2021ConditionalQA: A Complex Reading Comprehension Dataset with Conditional Answerscited by 29
  9. 2024Learning to Generate Instruction Tuning Datasets for Zero-Shot Task Adaptationcited by 27
  10. 2021NoiseQA: Challenge Set Evaluation for User-Centric Question Answeringcited by 25
  11. 2021Intent Classification and Slot Filling for Privacy Policiescited by 18
  12. 2023VNHSGE: VietNamese High School Graduation Examination Dataset for Large Language Modelscited by 15
38 more
  1. 2024Large Language Models: A New Approach for Privacy Policy Analysis at Scalecited by 14
  2. 2025Towards Reliable Retrieval in RAG Systems for Large Legal Datasetscited by 12
  3. 2021A Survey on Legal Question Answering Systemscited by 10
  4. 2022Retrieval Enhanced Data Augmentation for Question Answering on Privacy Policiescited by 10
  5. 2023Legal Question-Answering in the Indian Context: Efficacy, Challenges, and Potential of Modern AI Modelscited by 10
  6. 2024LawInstruct: A Resource for Studying Language Model Adaptation to the Legal Domaincited by 10
  7. 2024PositionID: LLMs can Control Lengths, Copy and Paste with Explicit Positional Awarenesscited by 9
  8. 2024Empowering Users in Digital Privacy Management through Interactive LLM-Based Agentscited by 9
  9. 2025DatasetResearch: Benchmarking Agent Systems for Demand-Driven Dataset Discoverycited by 9
  10. 2024Lawma: The Power of Specialization for Legal Annotationcited by 7
  11. 2024LexSumm and LexT5: Benchmarking and Modeling Legal Summarization Tasks in Englishcited by 7
  12. 2024Privacy Policy Analysis through Prompt Engineering for LLMscited by 6
  13. 2021Privacy Policy Question Answering Assistant: A Query-Guided Extractive Summarization Approachcited by 5
  14. 2022PLUE: Language Understanding Evaluation Benchmark for Privacy Policies in Englishcited by 5
  15. 2023ATLAS: Automatically Detecting Discrepancies Between Privacy Policies and Privacy Labelscited by 5
  16. 2024Automating IRAC Analysis in Malaysian Contract Law using a Semi-Structured Knowledge Basecited by 5
  17. 2025Ranking Free RAG: Replacing Re-ranking with Selection in RAG for Sensitive Domainscited by 5
  18. 2024GRAF: Graph Retrieval Augmented by Facts for Romanian Legal Multi-Choice Question Answeringcited by 4
  19. 2024Unanswerability Evaluation for Retrieval Augmented Generationcited by 4
  20. 2025sudoLLM: On Multi-role Alignment of Language Modelscited by 4
  21. 2025VLQA: The First Comprehensive, Large, and High-Quality Vietnamese Dataset for Legal Question Answeringcited by 4
  22. 2022Creation and Analysis of an International Corpus of Privacy Lawscited by 3
  23. 2022Unsupervised Simplification of Legal Textscited by 3
  24. 2023Automating Governing Knowledge Commons and Contextual Integrity (GKC-CI) Privacy Policy Annotations with Large Language Modelscited by 3
  25. 2024PolicyLR: A Logic Representation For Privacy Policiescited by 3
  26. 2025Benchmarking LLM Privacy Recognition for Social Robot Decision Makingcited by 3
  27. 2025Mining Useful General Data for Low-Resource Domain Adaptationcited by 3
  28. 2026RCBSF: A Multi-Agent Framework for Automated Contract Revision via Stackelberg Gamecited by 3
  29. 2024R2GQA: Retriever-Reader-Generator Question Answering System to Support Students Understanding Legal Regulations in Higher Educationcited by 2
  30. 2025A Multi-Agent Framework for Mitigating Dialect Biases in Privacy Policy Question-Answering Systemscited by 2
  31. 2026CanLegalRAGBench: Evaluating Retrieval-Augmented Generation on Canadian Case Lawcited by 2
  32. 2024Automated Detection and Analysis of Data Practices Using A Real-World Corpuscited by 1
  33. 2025PAKTON: A Multi-Agent Framework for Question Answering in Long Legal Agreementscited by 1
  34. 2025The Medium Is Not the Message: Deconfounding Document Embeddings via Linear Concept Erasurecited by 1
  35. 2025Let's Measure the Elephant in the Room: Facilitating Personalized Automated Analysis of Privacy Policies at Scalecited by 1
  36. 2025Overcoming Language Barriers: Multilingual Analysis of the 2023 Swiss Privacy Law's Impactcited by 1
  37. 2025From Answers to Guidance: A Proactive Dialogue System for Legal Documentscited by 1
  38. 2026Evaluation of Large Language Models in Legal Applications: Challenges, Methods, and Future Directionscited by 1

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