Learning Interactive Driving Policies via Data-driven Simulation
On the map: End-to-end autonomous driving → Imitation-learning end-to-end planners
Abstract (arXiv)
Data-driven simulators promise high data-efficiency for driving policy learning. When used for modelling interactions, this data-efficiency becomes a bottleneck: Small underlying datasets often lack interesting and challenging edge cases for learning interactive driving. We address this challenge by proposing a simulation method that uses in-painted ado vehicles for learning robust driving policies. Thus, our approach can be used to learn policies that involve multi-agent interactions and allows for training via state-of-the-art policy learning methods. We evaluate the approach for learning standard interaction scenarios in driving. In extensive experiments, our work demonstrates that the resulting policies can be directly transferred to a full-scale autonomous vehicle without making use of any traditional sim-to-real transfer techniques such as domain randomization.
Key facts. Cited by 17 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Placed in Imitation-learning end-to-end planners, one of 9 directions in End-to-end autonomous driving. Builds on 42 of its 62 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 23 Nov 2021.
Builds on
42 of 62 references.
References · 42
- 2017Proximal Policy Optimization Algorithmscited by 14,441
- 2017CARLA: An Open Urban Driving Simulatorcited by 2,431
- 2017Domain Randomization for Transferring Deep Neural Networks from Simulation to the Real Worldcited by 1,401
- 2019Habitat: A Platform for Embodied AI Researchcited by 1,163
- 2016End to End Learning for Self-Driving Carscited by 1,000
- 2017AirSim: High-Fidelity Visual and Physical Simulation for Autonomous Vehiclescited by 517
- 2017End-to-end Driving via Conditional Imitation Learningcited by 479
- 2018Gibson Env: Real-World Perception for Embodied Agentscited by 477
- 2018ChauffeurNet: Learning to Drive by Imitating the Best and Synthesizing the Worstcited by 391
- 2020dm_control: Software and Tasks for Continuous Controlcited by 368
- 2019Learning by Cheatingcited by 361
- 2020V2VNet: Vehicle-to-Vehicle Communication for Joint Perception and Predictioncited by 292
30 more
- 2018Learning to Drive in a Daycited by 266
- 2020ThreeDWorld: A Platform for Interactive Multi-Modal Physical Simulationcited by 249
- 2020RoboTHOR: An Open Simulation-to-Real Embodied AI Platformcited by 190
- 2016End-to-end Learning of Driving Models from Large-scale Video Datasetscited by 147
- 2019End-to-End Model-Free Reinforcement Learning for Urban Driving using Implicit Affordancescited by 147
- 2020LiDARsim: Realistic LiDAR Simulation by Leveraging the Real Worldcited by 137
- 2017Augmented Reality Meets Computer Vision : Efficient Data Generation for Urban Driving Scenescited by 122
- 2019Multimodal End-to-End Autonomous Drivingcited by 110
- 2018CIRL: Controllable Imitative Reinforcement Learning for Vision-based Self-drivingcited by 96
- 2019Urban Driving with Conditional Imitation Learningcited by 84
- 2017Virtual to Real Reinforcement Learning for Autonomous Drivingcited by 79
- 2018Deep Imitative Models for Flexible Inference, Planning, and Controlcited by 75
- 2018Conditional Affordance Learning for Driving in Urban Environmentscited by 70
- 2019Deep Drone Racing: From Simulation to Reality with Domain Randomizationcited by 63
- 2021Playable Video Generationcited by 63
- 2018On Offline Evaluation of Vision-based Driving Modelscited by 62
- 2020Foreground-aware Semantic Representations for Image Harmonizationcited by 53
- 2018Learning to Segment via Cut-and-Pastecited by 42
- 2021Autonomous Overtaking in Gran Turismo Sport Using Curriculum Reinforcement Learningcited by 41
- 2018Learning to Drive from Simulation without Real World Labelscited by 39
- 2016From Perception to Decision: A Data-driven Approach to End-to-end Motion Planning for Autonomous Ground Robotscited by 37
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Citing papers per year: 2022: 2; 2023: 7; 2024: 4; 2025: 4.
17 papers.
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- 2023End-to-end Autonomous Driving: Challenges and Frontierscited by 485
- 2024NAVSIM: Data-Driven Non-Reactive Autonomous Vehicle Simulation and Benchmarkingcited by 343
- 2023UniSim: A Neural Closed-Loop Sensor Simulatorcited by 294
- 2025Pseudo-Simulation for Autonomous Drivingcited by 141
- 2022Learning to Generate Realistic LiDAR Point Cloudscited by 91
- 2024Towards Realistic Scene Generation with LiDAR Diffusion Modelscited by 67
- 2023Read and Reap the Rewards: Learning to Play Atari with the Help of Instruction Manualscited by 45
- 2024Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning for Autonomous Driving: A Surveycited by 30
- 2023DITTO: Offline Imitation Learning with World Modelscited by 20
- 2023LightSim: Neural Lighting Simulation for Urban Scenescited by 20
- 2022Differentiable Control Barrier Functions for Vision-based End-to-End Autonomous Drivingcited by 10
- 2025Learning-based 3D Reconstruction in Autonomous Driving: A Comprehensive Surveycited by 9
5 more
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- 2025Navigating the Edge with the State-of-the-Art Insights into Corner Case Identification and Generation for Enhanced Autonomous Vehicle Safetycited by 1
- 2025LiDARDraft: Generating LiDAR Point Cloud from Versatile Inputscited by 1
- 2025LiDARDraft: Generating LiDAR Point Cloud from Versatile Inputs23 Dec 2025
- 2025Pseudo-Simulation for Autonomous Driving4 Jun 2025
- 2025Learning-based 3D Reconstruction in Autonomous Driving: A Comprehensive Survey17 Mar 2025
- 2025Navigating the Edge with the State-of-the-Art Insights into Corner Case Identification and Generation for Enhanced Autonomous Vehicle Safety27 Feb 2025
- 2024Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning for Autonomous Driving: A Survey19 Aug 2024
- 2024NAVSIM: Data-Driven Non-Reactive Autonomous Vehicle Simulation and Benchmarking21 Jun 2024
- 2024Towards Realistic Scene Generation with LiDAR Diffusion Models31 Mar 2024
- 2024Mixed-Reality Digital Twins: Leveraging the Physical and Virtual Worlds for Hybrid Sim2Real Transition of Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning Policies16 Mar 2024
- 2023LightSim: Neural Lighting Simulation for Urban Scenes11 Dec 2023
- 2023Safe Neural Control for Non-Affine Control Systems with Differentiable Control Barrier Functions6 Sep 2023
- 2023UniSim: A Neural Closed-Loop Sensor Simulator3 Aug 2023
- 2023End-to-end Autonomous Driving: Challenges and Frontiers29 Jun 2023
5 more
- 2023Learning Stability Attention in Vision-based End-to-end Driving Policies5 Apr 2023
- 2023Read and Reap the Rewards: Learning to Play Atari with the Help of Instruction Manuals9 Feb 2023
- 2023DITTO: Offline Imitation Learning with World Models6 Feb 2023
- 2022Learning to Generate Realistic LiDAR Point Clouds8 Sep 2022
- 2022Differentiable Control Barrier Functions for Vision-based End-to-End Autonomous Driving4 Mar 2022
- 2023End-to-end Autonomous Driving: Challenges and Frontierscited by 485
- 2024NAVSIM: Data-Driven Non-Reactive Autonomous Vehicle Simulation and Benchmarkingcited by 343
- 2025Pseudo-Simulation for Autonomous Drivingcited by 141
- 2024Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning for Autonomous Driving: A Surveycited by 30
- 2022Differentiable Control Barrier Functions for Vision-based End-to-End Autonomous Drivingcited by 10
- 2025Learning-based 3D Reconstruction in Autonomous Driving: A Comprehensive Surveycited by 9
- 2023Learning Stability Attention in Vision-based End-to-end Driving Policiescited by 5
- 2025Pseudo-Simulation for Autonomous Driving4 Jun 2025
- 2025Learning-based 3D Reconstruction in Autonomous Driving: A Comprehensive Survey17 Mar 2025
- 2024Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning for Autonomous Driving: A Survey19 Aug 2024
- 2024NAVSIM: Data-Driven Non-Reactive Autonomous Vehicle Simulation and Benchmarking21 Jun 2024
- 2023End-to-end Autonomous Driving: Challenges and Frontiers29 Jun 2023
- 2023Learning Stability Attention in Vision-based End-to-end Driving Policies5 Apr 2023
- 2022Differentiable Control Barrier Functions for Vision-based End-to-End Autonomous Driving4 Mar 2022
- 2022Learning to Generate Realistic LiDAR Point Cloudscited by 91
- 2024Towards Realistic Scene Generation with LiDAR Diffusion Modelscited by 67
- 2023DITTO: Offline Imitation Learning with World Modelscited by 20
- 2025LiDARDraft: Generating LiDAR Point Cloud from Versatile Inputscited by 1
- 2025LiDARDraft: Generating LiDAR Point Cloud from Versatile Inputs23 Dec 2025
- 2024Towards Realistic Scene Generation with LiDAR Diffusion Models31 Mar 2024
- 2023DITTO: Offline Imitation Learning with World Models6 Feb 2023
- 2022Learning to Generate Realistic LiDAR Point Clouds8 Sep 2022
- 2023UniSim: A Neural Closed-Loop Sensor Simulatorcited by 294
- 2023Read and Reap the Rewards: Learning to Play Atari with the Help of Instruction Manualscited by 45
- 2023LightSim: Neural Lighting Simulation for Urban Scenescited by 20
- 2023Safe Neural Control for Non-Affine Control Systems with Differentiable Control Barrier Functionscited by 3
- 2024Mixed-Reality Digital Twins: Leveraging the Physical and Virtual Worlds for Hybrid Sim2Real Transition of Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning Policiescited by 1
- 2025Navigating the Edge with the State-of-the-Art Insights into Corner Case Identification and Generation for Enhanced Autonomous Vehicle Safetycited by 1
- 2025Navigating the Edge with the State-of-the-Art Insights into Corner Case Identification and Generation for Enhanced Autonomous Vehicle Safety27 Feb 2025
- 2024Mixed-Reality Digital Twins: Leveraging the Physical and Virtual Worlds for Hybrid Sim2Real Transition of Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning Policies16 Mar 2024
- 2023LightSim: Neural Lighting Simulation for Urban Scenes11 Dec 2023
- 2023Safe Neural Control for Non-Affine Control Systems with Differentiable Control Barrier Functions6 Sep 2023
- 2023UniSim: A Neural Closed-Loop Sensor Simulator3 Aug 2023
- 2023Read and Reap the Rewards: Learning to Play Atari with the Help of Instruction Manuals9 Feb 2023
Similar, not cited
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- 2021Urban Driver: Learning to Drive from Real-world Demonstrations Using Policy Gradients
- 2025Automatic Curriculum Learning for Driving Scenarios: Towards Robust and Efficient Reinforcement Learning
- 2022Discrete Control in Real-World Driving Environments using Deep Reinforcement Learning
- 2023Waymax: An Accelerated, Data-Driven Simulator for Large-Scale Autonomous Driving Research
- 2025Learning to Drive by Imitating Surrounding Vehicles
- 2018Multi-Agent Imitation Learning for Driving Simulation
- 2024Human-compatible driving partners through data-regularized self-play reinforcement learning
- 2021Iterative Imitation Policy Improvement for Interactive Autonomous Driving