mlsanityData to 14 Oct 2026

End-to-End Model-Free Reinforcement Learning for Urban Driving using Implicit Affordances

arXiv 1911.10868 ↗First posted 25 Nov 2019cs.LG cs.AI cs.CVcited by 149

Not on the map. Why?

Cited by 108 in End-to-end autonomous driving, but placed by its own abstract, which didn’t fit.

Abstract (arXiv)

Reinforcement Learning (RL) aims at learning an optimal behavior policy from its own experiments and not rule-based control methods. However, there is no RL algorithm yet capable of handling a task as difficult as urban driving. We present a novel technique, coined implicit affordances, to effectively leverage RL for urban driving thus including lane keeping, pedestrians and vehicles avoidance, and traffic light detection. To our knowledge we are the first to present a successful RL agent handling such a complex task especially regarding the traffic light detection. Furthermore, we have demonstrated the effectiveness of our method by winning the Camera Only track of the CARLA challenge.

Key facts. Cited by 149 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 25 Nov 2019.

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Cited by year (2026 to 14 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2021: 19; 2022: 22; 2023: 30; 2024: 27; 2025: 36; 2026: 15.

149 papers.

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  1. 2022Planning-oriented Autonomous Drivingcited by 1,087
  2. 2023VAD: Vectorized Scene Representation for Efficient Autonomous Drivingcited by 622
  3. 2023End-to-end Autonomous Driving: Challenges and Frontierscited by 490
  4. 2024DriveVLM: The Convergence of Autonomous Driving and Large Vision-Language Modelscited by 490
  5. 2022TransFuser: Imitation with Transformer-Based Sensor Fusion for Autonomous Drivingcited by 485
  6. 2021Multi-Modal Fusion Transformer for End-to-End Autonomous Drivingcited by 377
  7. 2023LMDrive: Closed-Loop End-to-End Driving with Large Language Modelscited by 305
  8. 2024VADv2: End-to-End Vectorized Autonomous Driving via Probabilistic Planningcited by 289
  9. 2024Bench2Drive: Towards Multi-Ability Benchmarking of Closed-Loop End-To-End Autonomous Drivingcited by 252
  10. 2022Trajectory-guided Control Prediction for End-to-end Autonomous Driving: A Simple yet Strong Baselinecited by 248
  11. 2023Driving with LLMs: Fusing Object-Level Vector Modality for Explainable Autonomous Drivingcited by 232
  12. 2024EMMA: End-to-End Multimodal Model for Autonomous Drivingcited by 231
38 more
  1. 2022Safety-Enhanced Autonomous Driving Using Interpretable Sensor Fusion Transformercited by 212
  2. 2021End-to-End Urban Driving by Imitating a Reinforcement Learning Coachcited by 194
  3. 2021NEAT: Neural Attention Fields for End-to-End Autonomous Drivingcited by 174
  4. 2023Think Twice before Driving: Towards Scalable Decoders for End-to-End Autonomous Drivingcited by 169
  5. 2024Enhancing End-to-End Autonomous Driving with Latent World Modelcited by 166
  6. 2024Senna: Bridging Large Vision-Language Models and End-to-End Autonomous Drivingcited by 156
  7. 2025End-to-End Driving with Online Trajectory Evaluation via BEV World Modelcited by 151
  8. 2022Model-Based Imitation Learning for Urban Drivingcited by 150
  9. 2023DriveAdapter: Breaking the Coupling Barrier of Perception and Planning in End-to-End Autonomous Drivingcited by 144
  10. 2022Learning from All Vehiclescited by 135
  11. 2021Learning to drive from a world on railscited by 114
  12. 2021Reward (Mis)design for Autonomous Drivingcited by 104
  13. 2023Recent Advancements in End-to-End Autonomous Driving using Deep Learning: A Surveycited by 103
  14. 2022KING: Generating Safety-Critical Driving Scenarios for Robust Imitation via Kinematics Gradientscited by 96
  15. 2023Hidden Biases of End-to-End Driving Modelscited by 96
  16. 2022COOPERNAUT: End-to-End Driving with Cooperative Perception for Networked Vehiclescited by 95
  17. 2025DriveSuprim: Towards Precise Trajectory Selection for End-to-End Planningcited by 94
  18. 2023ReasonNet: End-to-End Driving with Temporal and Global Reasoningcited by 93
  19. 2024OpenEMMA: Open-Source Multimodal Model for End-to-End Autonomous Drivingcited by 93
  20. 2024RAG-Driver: Generalisable Driving Explanations with Retrieval-Augmented In-Context Learning in Multi-Modal Large Language Modelcited by 92
  21. 2021Explainability of deep vision-based autonomous driving systems: Review and challengescited by 80
  22. 2025RAD: Training an End-to-End Driving Policy via Large-Scale 3DGS-based Reinforcement Learningcited by 79
  23. 2023ADAPT: Action-aware Driving Caption Transformercited by 78
  24. 2021Explainable Artificial Intelligence for Autonomous Driving: A Comprehensive Overview and Field Guide for Future Research Directionscited by 73
  25. 2024DriveCoT: Integrating Chain-of-Thought Reasoning with End-to-End Drivingcited by 67
  26. 2021GRI: General Reinforced Imitation and its Application to Vision-Based Autonomous Drivingcited by 60
  27. 2023Drive Anywhere: Generalizable End-to-end Autonomous Driving with Multi-modal Foundation Modelscited by 59
  28. 2025Raw2Drive: Reinforcement Learning with Aligned World Models for End-to-End Autonomous Driving (in CARLA v2)cited by 47
  29. 2025RAP: 3D Rasterization Augmented End-to-End Planningcited by 41
  30. 2025DriveDPO: Policy Learning via Safety DPO For End-to-End Autonomous Drivingcited by 39
  31. 2022On Transforming Reinforcement Learning by Transformer: The Development Trajectorycited by 36
  32. 2025HiP-AD: Hierarchical and Multi-Granularity Planning with Deformable Attention for Autonomous Driving in a Single Decodercited by 35
  33. 2025CaRL: Learning Scalable Planning Policies with Simple Rewardscited by 35
  34. 2025Vision-Language-Action Models for Autonomous Driving: Past, Present, and Futurecited by 33
  35. 2023Rethinking Closed-loop Training for Autonomous Drivingcited by 29
  36. 2022CoupAlign: Coupling Word-Pixel with Sentence-Mask Alignments for Referring Image Segmentationcited by 28
  37. 2023Policy Pre-training for Autonomous Driving via Self-supervised Geometric Modelingcited by 26
  38. 2021LAFEAT: Piercing Through Adversarial Defenses with Latent Featurescited by 24

50 most cited of 149 All 149 (JSON)