mlsanityData to 14 Oct 2026

Evaluating the Performance of Large Language Models on GAOKAO Benchmark

arXiv 2305.12474 ↗First posted 21 May 2023cs.CL cs.AIcited by 186

Not on the map. Why?

Cited by 72 in LLM reasoning, but placed by its own abstract, which didn’t fit.

Abstract (arXiv)

Large Language Models(LLMs) have demonstrated remarkable performance across various natural language processing tasks; however, how to comprehensively and accurately assess their performance becomes an urgent issue to be addressed. This paper introduces GAOKAO-Bench, an intuitive benchmark that employs questions from the Chinese GAOKAO examination as test samples, including both subjective and objective questions. To align with human examination methods, we design a method based on zero-shot settings to evaluate the performance of LLMs. With human evaluation, we obtain the converted total score of LLMs, including GPT-4, ChatGPT and ERNIE-Bot.Our findings reveal that LLMs have achieved competitive scores in Chinese GAOKAO examination, while they exhibit significant performance disparities across various subjects. We also use LLMs to grade the subjective questions, and find that model scores achieve a moderate level of consistency with human scores. In conclusion, this research contributes a robust evaluation benchmark for future large language models and offers valuable insights into the advantages and limitations of such models.

Key facts. Cited by 186 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026). Builds on 12 of its 26 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 21 May 2023.

Builds on

12 of 26 references.

References · 12

  1. 2020Language Models are Few-Shot Learnerscited by 32,419
  2. 2023GPT-4 Technical Reportcited by 18,396
  3. 2022Training language models to follow instructions with human feedbackcited by 15,971
  4. 2020Measuring Massive Multitask Language Understandingcited by 7,963
  5. 2018GLUE: A Multi-Task Benchmark and Analysis Platform for Natural Language Understandingcited by 4,899
  6. 2016SQuAD: 100,000+ Questions for Machine Comprehension of Textcited by 4,148
  7. 2023Sparks of Artificial General Intelligence: Early experiments with GPT-4cited by 2,592
  8. 2022Beyond the Imitation Game: Quantifying and extrapolating the capabilities of language modelscited by 1,998
  9. 2023AGIEval: A Human-Centric Benchmark for Evaluating Foundation Modelscited by 716
  10. 2023C-Eval: A Multi-Level Multi-Discipline Chinese Evaluation Suite for Foundation Modelscited by 708
  11. 2022Towards a Unified Multi-Dimensional Evaluator for Text Generationcited by 264
  12. 2022Downstream Transformer Generation of Question-Answer Pairs with Preprocessing and Postprocessing Pipelinescited by 5

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Cited by year (2026 to 14 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2023: 26; 2024: 39; 2025: 69; 2026: 52.

186 papers.

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  1. 2023Qwen Technical Reportcited by 3,344
  2. 2025InternVL3: Exploring Advanced Training and Test-Time Recipes for Open-Source Multimodal Modelscited by 1,834
  3. 2024Expanding Performance Boundaries of Open-Source Multimodal Models with Model, Data, and Test-Time Scalingcited by 1,599
  4. 2025InternVL3.5: Advancing Open-Source Multimodal Models in Versatility, Reasoning, and Efficiencycited by 1,510
  5. 2023A Survey on Evaluation of Large Language Modelscited by 1,242
  6. 2024Qwen2.5-Math Technical Report: Toward Mathematical Expert Model via Self-Improvementcited by 1,090
  7. 2024Yi: Open Foundation Models by 01.AIcited by 719
  8. 2023Baichuan 2: Open Large-scale Language Modelscited by 670
  9. 2025O1-Pruner: Length-Harmonizing Fine-Tuning for O1-Like Reasoning Pruningcited by 279
  10. 2024Enhancing the Reasoning Ability of Multimodal Large Language Models via Mixed Preference Optimizationcited by 239
  11. 2024Large Language Models for Education: A Survey and Outlookcited by 188
  12. 2025LLaDA2.0: Scaling Up Diffusion Language Models to 100Bcited by 166
38 more
  1. 2024MathScale: Scaling Instruction Tuning for Mathematical Reasoningcited by 144
  2. 2023LawBench: Benchmarking Legal Knowledge of Large Language Modelscited by 117
  3. 2023CMB: A Comprehensive Medical Benchmark in Chinesecited by 115
  4. 2025Act Only When It Pays: Efficient Reinforcement Learning for LLM Reasoning via Selective Rolloutscited by 113
  5. 2025Baichuan-Omni-1.5 Technical Reportcited by 111
  6. 2023M3Exam: A Multilingual, Multimodal, Multilevel Benchmark for Examining Large Language Modelscited by 110
  7. 2024LLaMA Beyond English: An Empirical Study on Language Capability Transfercited by 95
  8. 2023CValues: Measuring the Values of Chinese Large Language Models from Safety to Responsibilitycited by 85
  9. 2023NPHardEval: Dynamic Benchmark on Reasoning Ability of Large Language Models via Complexity Classescited by 79
  10. 2025ReMA: Learning to Meta-think for LLMs with Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learningcited by 79
  11. 2024OlympicArena: Benchmarking Multi-discipline Cognitive Reasoning for Superintelligent AIcited by 71
  12. 2024CMMMU: A Chinese Massive Multi-discipline Multimodal Understanding Benchmarkcited by 56
  13. 2025Beyond Pass@1: Self-Play with Variational Problem Synthesis Sustains RLVRcited by 54
  14. 2025Prosperity before Collapse: How Far Can Off-Policy RL Reach with Stale Data on LLMs?cited by 53
  15. 2023FinEval: A Chinese Financial Domain Knowledge Evaluation Benchmark for Large Language Modelscited by 52
  16. 2024Multilingual Large Language Model: A Survey of Resources, Taxonomy and Frontierscited by 51
  17. 2025UGPhysics: A Comprehensive Benchmark for Undergraduate Physics Reasoning with Large Language Modelscited by 48
  18. 2024ChatGLM-Math: Improving Math Problem-Solving in Large Language Models with a Self-Critique Pipelinecited by 47
  19. 2024Parameter-Efficient Fine-Tuning in Large Models: A Survey of Methodologiescited by 47
  20. 2024GeoEval: Benchmark for Evaluating LLMs and Multi-Modal Models on Geometry Problem-Solvingcited by 45
  21. 2025Towards Greater Leverage: Scaling Laws for Efficient Mixture-of-Experts Language Modelscited by 45
  22. 2025Baichuan-M1: Pushing the Medical Capability of Large Language Modelscited by 43
  23. 2024Number Cookbook: Number Understanding of Language Models and How to Improve Itcited by 42
  24. 2025SwS: Self-aware Weakness-driven Problem Synthesis in Reinforcement Learning for LLM Reasoningcited by 42
  25. 2024SuperCorrect: Advancing Small LLM Reasoning with Thought Template Distillation and Self-Correctioncited by 40
  26. 2025A Survey of Test-Time Compute: From Intuitive Inference to Deliberate Reasoningcited by 40
  27. 2025CompassVerifier: A Unified and Robust Verifier for LLMs Evaluation and Outcome Rewardcited by 40
  28. 2023Urban Generative Intelligence (UGI): A Foundational Platform for Agents in Embodied City Environmentcited by 37
  29. 2025Enhancing LLM Reasoning with Iterative DPO: A Comprehensive Empirical Investigationcited by 37
  30. 2024SceMQA: A Scientific College Entrance Level Multimodal Question Answering Benchmarkcited by 35
  31. 2023Model Spider: Learning to Rank Pre-Trained Models Efficientlycited by 32
  32. 2023Foundation Metrics for Evaluating Effectiveness of Healthcare Conversations Powered by Generative AIcited by 32
  33. 2025Leveraging Online Olympiad-Level Math Problems for LLMs Training and Contamination-Resistant Evaluationcited by 29
  34. 2024PRE: A Peer Review Based Large Language Model Evaluatorcited by 28
  35. 2025TemplateRL: Structured Template-Guided Reinforcement Learning for LLM Reasoningcited by 28
  36. 2025WSM: Decay-Free Learning Rate Schedule via Checkpoint Merging for LLM Pre-trainingcited by 23
  37. 2025Hard2Verify: A Step-Level Verification Benchmark for Open-Ended Frontier Mathcited by 22
  38. 2025Enhancing Large Language Model Reasoning via Selective Critical Token Fine-Tuningcited by 20

50 most cited of 186 All 186 (JSON)