mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

CEFR-Based Sentence Difficulty Annotation and Assessment

arXiv 2210.11766 ↗First posted 21 Oct 2022cs.CLcited by 28

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Abstract (arXiv)

Controllable text simplification is a crucial assistive technique for language learning and teaching. One of the primary factors hindering its advancement is the lack of a corpus annotated with sentence difficulty levels based on language ability descriptions. To address this problem, we created the CEFR-based Sentence Profile (CEFR-SP) corpus, containing 17k English sentences annotated with the levels based on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages assigned by English-education professionals. In addition, we propose a sentence-level assessment model to handle unbalanced level distribution because the most basic and highly proficient sentences are naturally scarce. In the experiments in this study, our method achieved a macro-F1 score of 84.5% in the level assessment, thus outperforming strong baselines employed in readability assessment.

Key facts. Cited by 28 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 19 of its 72 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 21 Oct 2022.

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19 of 72 references.

References · 19

  1. 2018BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understandingcited by 40,204
  2. 2019RoBERTa: A Robustly Optimized BERT Pretraining Approachcited by 13,266
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  10. 2020Neural CRF Model for Sentence Alignment in Text Simplificationcited by 106
  11. 2019Text Readability Assessment for Second Language Learnerscited by 54
  12. 2019Supervised and Unsupervised Neural Approaches to Text Readabilitycited by 45
7 more
  1. 2020Linguistic Features for Readability Assessmentcited by 35
  2. 2019Multi-Level Matching and Aggregation Network for Few-Shot Relation Classificationcited by 32
  3. 2021BERT Embeddings for Automatic Readability Assessmentcited by 19
  4. 2019Subjective Assessment of Text Complexity: A Dataset for German Languagecited by 17
  5. 2021ReadNet: A Hierarchical Transformer Framework for Web Article Readability Analysiscited by 16
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Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2023: 3; 2024: 4; 2025: 13; 2026: 8.

28 papers.

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  1. 2025BOUQuET: dataset, Benchmark and Open initiative for Universal Quality Evaluation in Translationcited by 21
  2. 2023ReadMe++: Benchmarking Multilingual Language Models for Multi-Domain Readability Assessmentcited by 19
  3. 2024Analysing Zero-Shot Readability-Controlled Sentence Simplificationcited by 12
  4. 2023Learning to Paraphrase Sentences to Different Complexity Levelscited by 11
  5. 2024Standardize: Aligning Language Models with Expert-Defined Standards for Content Generationcited by 7
  6. 2024An Effective Automated Speaking Assessment Approach to Mitigating Data Scarcity and Imbalanced Distributioncited by 7
  7. 2023Meta-Tuning LLMs to Leverage Lexical Knowledge for Generalizable Language Style Understandingcited by 4
  8. 2025Trans-EnV: A Framework for Evaluating the Linguistic Robustness of LLMs Against English Varietiescited by 4
  9. 2025Exploiting the English Vocabulary Profile for L2 word-level vocabulary assessment with LLMscited by 4
  10. 2025Ace-CEFR -- A Dataset for Automated Evaluation of the Linguistic Difficulty of Conversational Texts for LLM Applicationscited by 4
  11. 2025Readability Reconsidered: A Cross-Dataset Analysis of Reference-Free Metricscited by 2
  12. 2025Educational Cone Model in Embedding Vector Spacescited by 2
16 more
  1. 2026This Treatment Works, Right? Evaluating LLM Sensitivity to Patient Question Framing in Medical QAcited by 2
  2. 2024EvalYaks: Instruction Tuning Datasets and LoRA Fine-tuned Models for Automated Scoring of CEFR B2 Speaking Assessment Transcriptscited by 1
  3. 2025Eye Tracking Based Cognitive Evaluation of Automatic Readability Assessment Methodscited by 1
  4. 2026Let's Simplify Step by Step: Guiding LLM Towards Multilingual Unsupervised Proficiency-Controlled Sentence Simplificationcited by 1
  5. 2025An Effective Strategy for Modeling Score Ordinality and Non-uniform Intervals in Automated Speaking Assessmentcited by 0
  6. 2025Towards Ontology-Based Descriptions of Conversations with Qualitatively-Defined Conceptscited by 0
  7. 2025Controlling Language Difficulty in Dialogues with Linguistic Featurescited by 0
  8. 2025OUNLP at TSAR 2025 Shared Task: Multi-Round Text Simplifier via Code Generationcited by 0
  9. 2025Readability Measures and Automatic Text Simplification: In the Search of a Constructcited by 0
  10. 2025Textual Data Bias Detection and Mitigation -- An Extensible Pipeline with Experimental Evaluationcited by 0
  11. 2026Retcon -- a Prompt-Based Technique for Precise Control of LLMs in Conversationscited by 0
  12. 2026Predicting Disagreement with Human Raters in LLM-as-a-Judge Difficulty Assessment without Using Generation-Time Probability Signalscited by 0
  13. 2026ComplexityMT: Benchmarking the Interaction Between Text Complexity and Machine Translationcited by 0
  14. 2026Analyzing Traditional and Neural Approaches to Multilingual Readability Assessmentcited by 0
  15. 2026Beetle: A Bilingual Model Suite for Modelling Second-Language Processingcited by 0
  16. 2026Evaluation of pre-trained models for pedagogical assessment of novel AI-assisted educational questionscited by 0