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Supervised and Unsupervised Neural Approaches to Text Readability

arXiv 1907.11779 ↗First posted 26 Jul 2019cs.CLcited by 46

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Abstract (arXiv)

We present a set of novel neural supervised and unsupervised approaches for determining the readability of documents. In the unsupervised setting, we leverage neural language models, whereas in the supervised setting, three different neural classification architectures are tested. We show that the proposed neural unsupervised approach is robust, transferable across languages and allows adaptation to a specific readability task and data set. By systematic comparison of several neural architectures on a number of benchmark and new labelled readability datasets in two languages, this study also offers a comprehensive analysis of different neural approaches to readability classification. We expose their strengths and weaknesses, compare their performance to current state-of-the-art classification approaches to readability, which in most cases still rely on extensive feature engineering, and propose possibilities for improvements.

Key facts. Cited by 46 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 26 Jul 2019.

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Citing papers per year: 2021: 7; 2022: 9; 2023: 10; 2024: 10; 2025: 3; 2026: 7.

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  1. 2024Imprompter: Tricking LLM Agents into Improper Tool Usecited by 68
  2. 2021Pushing on Text Readability Assessment: A Transformer Meets Handcrafted Linguistic Featurescited by 36
  3. 2021Trends, Limitations and Open Challenges in Automatic Readability Assessment Researchcited by 28
  4. 2022CEFR-Based Sentence Difficulty Annotation and Assessmentcited by 28
  5. 2023Generating Summaries with Controllable Readability Levelscited by 24
  6. 2021BERT Embeddings for Automatic Readability Assessmentcited by 19
  7. 2022Readability Controllable Biomedical Document Summarizationcited by 19
  8. 2023ReadMe++: Benchmarking Multilingual Language Models for Multi-Domain Readability Assessmentcited by 19
  9. 2023Generating and Evaluating Tests for K-12 Students with Language Model Simulations: A Case Study on Sentence Reading Efficiencycited by 16
  10. 2022A Neural Pairwise Ranking Model for Readability Assessmentcited by 14
  11. 2023Personalized Jargon Identification for Enhanced Interdisciplinary Communicationcited by 12
  12. 2024Measuring and Modifying the Readability of English Texts with GPT-4cited by 10
34 more
  1. 2023Prompt-based Learning for Text Readability Assessmentcited by 8
  2. 2022Automatic Readability Assessment of German Sentences with Transformer Ensemblescited by 7
  3. 2022A Unified Neural Network Model for Readability Assessment with Feature Projection and Length-Balanced Losscited by 7
  4. 2024TriviaHG: A Dataset for Automatic Hint Generation from Factoid Questionscited by 7
  5. 2024An Open Multilingual System for Scoring Readability of Wikipediacited by 7
  6. 2024Engagement-Driven Content Generation with Large Language Modelscited by 5
  7. 2021Predicting Text Readability from Scrolling Interactionscited by 4
  8. 2025Ace-CEFR -- A Dataset for Automated Evaluation of the Linguistic Difficulty of Conversational Texts for LLM Applicationscited by 4
  9. 2021Learning Syntactic Dense Embedding with Correlation Graph for Automatic Readability Assessmentcited by 3
  10. 2024Label Confidence Weighted Learning for Target-level Sentence Simplificationcited by 3
  11. 2026Zero-shot Large Language Models for Automatic Readability Assessmentcited by 3
  12. 2022A Transfer Learning Based Model for Text Readability Assessment in Germancited by 2
  13. 2024Strategies for Arabic Readability Modelingcited by 2
  14. 2021A Simple Post-Processing Technique for Improving Readability Assessment of Texts using Word Mover's Distancecited by 1
  15. 2021Semi-Supervised Joint Estimation of Word and Document Readabilitycited by 1
  16. 2022Pseudo-Labels Are All You Needcited by 1
  17. 2022Sentence Ambiguity, Grammaticality and Complexity Probescited by 1
  18. 2023A User-Centered Evaluation of Spanish Text Simplificationcited by 1
  19. 2024FPT: Feature Prompt Tuning for Few-shot Readability Assessmentcited by 1
  20. 2024Readability-guided Idiom-aware Sentence Simplification (RISS) for Chinesecited by 1
  21. 2025Eye Tracking Based Cognitive Evaluation of Automatic Readability Assessment Methodscited by 1
  22. 2026Let's Simplify Step by Step: Guiding LLM Towards Multilingual Unsupervised Proficiency-Controlled Sentence Simplificationcited by 1
  23. 2022Large-Scale Multi-Document Summarization with Information Extraction and Compressioncited by 0
  24. 2023Optimizing Readability Using Genetic Algorithmscited by 0
  25. 2023Exploring Linguistic Features for Turkish Text Readabilitycited by 0
  26. 2023Cross-corpus Readability Compatibility Assessment for English Textscited by 0
  27. 2023Age Recommendation from Texts and Sentences for Childrencited by 0
  28. 2024What Differentiates Educational Literature? A Multimodal Fusion Approach of Transformers and Computational Linguisticscited by 0
  29. 2025Hierarchical Ranking Neural Network for Long Document Readability Assessmentcited by 0
  30. 2026Translation as Augmentation: Effect of Translated Data on Assessment of Difficultycited by 0
  31. 2026Flesch-Kincaid Readability Depends Only on the Topic Distribution in Long Texts under Topic Modelscited by 0
  32. 2026Analyzing Traditional and Neural Approaches to Multilingual Readability Assessmentcited by 0
  33. 2026Assessing Readability with LLMs: The Role of Reasoning and Few-Shot Promptingcited by 0
  34. 2026CLARA: Can AI Assess Developmental Appropriateness in Children's Stories?cited by 0