mlsanityData to 14 Oct 2026

Estimating Depth from Monocular Images as Classification Using Deep Fully Convolutional Residual Networks

arXiv 1605.02305 ↗First posted 8 May 2016cs.CVcited by 91

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Abstract (arXiv)

Depth estimation from single monocular images is a key component of scene understanding and has benefited largely from deep convolutional neural networks (CNN) recently. In this article, we take advantage of the recent deep residual networks and propose a simple yet effective approach to this problem. We formulate depth estimation as a pixel-wise classification task. Specifically, we first discretize the continuous depth values into multiple bins and label the bins according to their depth range. Then we train fully convolutional deep residual networks to predict the depth label of each pixel. Performing discrete depth label classification instead of continuous depth value regression allows us to predict a confidence in the form of probability distribution. We further apply fully-connected conditional random fields (CRF) as a post processing step to enforce local smoothness interactions, which improves the results. We evaluate our approach on both indoor and outdoor datasets and achieve state-of-the-art performance.

Key facts. Cited by 91 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 8 May 2016.

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Citing papers per year: 2021: 19; 2022: 17; 2023: 28; 2024: 16; 2025: 5; 2026: 6.

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  1. 2023LanguageBind: Extending Video-Language Pretraining to N-modality by Language-based Semantic Alignmentcited by 370
  2. 2023The Surprising Effectiveness of Diffusion Models for Optical Flow and Monocular Depth Estimationcited by 116
  3. 2024Flash3D: Feed-Forward Generalisable 3D Scene Reconstruction from a Single Imagecited by 116
  4. 2022P3Depth: Monocular Depth Estimation with a Piecewise Planarity Priorcited by 107
  5. 2023Monocular Depth Estimation using Diffusion Modelscited by 87
  6. 2023iDisc: Internal Discretization for Monocular Depth Estimationcited by 73
  7. 2021Self-Supervised Monocular Depth and Ego-Motion Estimation in Endoscopy: Appearance Flow to the Rescuecited by 72
  8. 2023IEBins: Iterative Elastic Bins for Monocular Depth Estimationcited by 54
  9. 2021Virtual Normal: Enforcing Geometric Constraints for Accurate and Robust Depth Predictioncited by 48
  10. 2021Multi-View Depth Estimation by Fusing Single-View Depth Probability with Multi-View Geometrycited by 46
  11. 2023Improving Deep Regression with Ordinal Entropycited by 45
  12. 2023NDDepth: Normal-Distance Assisted Monocular Depth Estimationcited by 45
38 more
  1. 2021Single Image Depth Estimation: An Overviewcited by 35
  2. 2022BiFuse++: Self-supervised and Efficient Bi-projection Fusion for 360 Depth Estimationcited by 35
  3. 2023BEVNeXt: Reviving Dense BEV Frameworks for 3D Object Detectioncited by 35
  4. 2022Deep Depth Completion from Extremely Sparse Data: A Surveycited by 33
  5. 2021BridgeNet: A Joint Learning Network of Depth Map Super-Resolution and Monocular Depth Estimationcited by 31
  6. 2022Less is More: Consistent Video Depth Estimation with Masked Frames Modelingcited by 30
  7. 2022IronDepth: Iterative Refinement of Single-View Depth using Surface Normal and its Uncertaintycited by 30
  8. 2023Zero-Shot Metric Depth with a Field-of-View Conditioned Diffusion Modelcited by 29
  9. 2022UDepth: Fast Monocular Depth Estimation for Visually-guided Underwater Robotscited by 27
  10. 2024Hierarchical Classification Auxiliary Network for Time Series Forecastingcited by 26
  11. 2021Monocular Depth Estimation through Virtual-world Supervision and Real-world SfM Self-Supervisioncited by 24
  12. 2022Controllable Shadow Generation Using Pixel Height Mapscited by 22
  13. 2023PanelNet: Understanding 360 Indoor Environment via Panel Representationcited by 19
  14. 2025DepthMaster: Taming Diffusion Models for Monocular Depth Estimationcited by 19
  15. 2022GLPanoDepth: Global-to-Local Panoramic Depth Estimationcited by 16
  16. 2025Vision-Language Embodiment for Monocular Depth Estimationcited by 16
  17. 2022360 Depth Estimation in the Wild -- The Depth360 Dataset and the SegFuse Networkcited by 15
  18. 2024Deep Learning-based Depth Estimation Methods from Monocular Image and Videos: A Comprehensive Surveycited by 15
  19. 2024ScaleDepth: Decomposing Metric Depth Estimation into Scale Prediction and Relative Depth Estimationcited by 15
  20. 2021Mirror3D: Depth Refinement for Mirror Surfacescited by 13
  21. 2023MonoDiffusion: Self-Supervised Monocular Depth Estimation Using Diffusion Modelcited by 13
  22. 2024DCPI-Depth: Explicitly Infusing Dense Correspondence Prior to Unsupervised Monocular Depth Estimationcited by 13
  23. 2022MonoIndoor++:Towards Better Practice of Self-Supervised Monocular Depth Estimation for Indoor Environmentscited by 12
  24. 2024DCDepth: Progressive Monocular Depth Estimation in Discrete Cosine Domaincited by 12
  25. 2024Ensuring UAV Safety: A Vision-only and Real-time Framework for Collision Avoidance Through Object Detection, Tracking, and Distance Estimationcited by 11
  26. 2021Generic Perceptual Loss for Modeling Structured Output Dependenciescited by 9
  27. 2022PanoDepth: A Two-Stage Approach for Monocular Omnidirectional Depth Estimationcited by 9
  28. 2023Embodied Concept Learner: Self-supervised Learning of Concepts and Mapping through Instruction Followingcited by 9
  29. 2023WS-SfMLearner: Self-supervised Monocular Depth and Ego-motion Estimation on Surgical Videos with Unknown Camera Parameterscited by 9
  30. 2023Deep Imbalanced Regression via Hierarchical Classification Adjustmentcited by 9
  31. 2023NDDepth: Normal-Distance Assisted Monocular Depth Estimation and Completioncited by 9
  32. 2023A geometry-aware deep network for depth estimation in monocular endoscopycited by 8
  33. 2023Defocus to focus: Photo-realistic bokeh rendering by fusing defocus and radiance priorscited by 8
  34. 2021Self-supervised Depth Estimation Leveraging Global Perception and Geometric Smoothness Using On-board Videoscited by 7
  35. 2021Towards Comprehensive Monocular Depth Estimation: Multiple Heads Are Better Than Onecited by 7
  36. 2021NVS-MonoDepth: Improving Monocular Depth Prediction with Novel View Synthesiscited by 7
  37. 2022Vision-Based Environmental Perception for Autonomous Drivingcited by 7
  38. 2023Depth Estimation and Image Restoration by Deep Learning from Defocused Imagescited by 7

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