mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

Measuring Bargaining Abilities of LLMs: A Benchmark and A Buyer-Enhancement Method

arXiv 2402.15813 ↗First posted 24 Feb 2024cs.CL cs.GTcited by 44

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Cited by 20 in LLM agents and tool use, but placed by its own abstract, which didn’t fit.

Abstract (arXiv)

Bargaining is an important and unique part of negotiation between humans. As LLM-driven agents learn to negotiate and act like real humans, how to evaluate agents' bargaining abilities remains an open problem. For the first time, we formally described the Bargaining task as an asymmetric incomplete information game, defining the gains of the Buyer and Seller in multiple bargaining processes. It allows us to quantitatively assess an agent's performance in the Bargain task. We collected a real product price dataset, AmazonHistoryPrice, and conducted evaluations of various LLM agents' bargaining abilities. We find that playing a Buyer is much harder than a Seller, and increasing model size can not effectively improve the Buyer's performance. To address the challenge, we propose a novel approach called OG-Narrator that integrates a deterministic Offer Generator to control the price range of Buyer's offers, and an LLM Narrator to create natural language sentences for generated offers. Experimental results show that OG-Narrator improves the buyer's deal rates from 26.67% to 88.88% and brings a ten times multiplication of profits on all baselines, even a model that has not been aligned.

Key facts. Cited by 44 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 19 of its 37 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 24 Feb 2024.

Builds on

19 of 37 references.

References · 19

  1. 2022Training language models to follow instructions with human feedbackcited by 15,712
  2. 2023Llama 2: Open Foundation and Fine-Tuned Chat Modelscited by 12,865
  3. 2023Efficient Memory Management for Large Language Model Serving with PagedAttentioncited by 5,767
  4. 2022Large Language Models are Zero-Shot Reasonerscited by 4,323
  5. 2022WebShop: Towards Scalable Real-World Web Interaction with Grounded Language Agentscited by 1,197
  6. 2020ALFWorld: Aligning Text and Embodied Environments for Interactive Learningcited by 1,143
  7. 2021Train Short, Test Long: Attention with Linear Biases Enables Input Length Extrapolationcited by 1,085
  8. 2021GLM: General Language Model Pretraining with Autoregressive Blank Infillingcited by 1,026
  9. 2023Encouraging Divergent Thinking in Large Language Models through Multi-Agent Debatecited by 995
  10. 2024R-Judge: Benchmarking Safety Risk Awareness for LLM Agentscited by 268
  11. 2017Deal or No Deal? End-to-End Learning for Negotiation Dialoguescited by 202
  12. 2023Improving Language Model Negotiation with Self-Play and In-Context Learning from AI Feedbackcited by 202
7 more
  1. 2018Decoupling Strategy and Generation in Negotiation Dialoguescited by 156
  2. 2023Put Your Money Where Your Mouth Is: Evaluating Strategic Planning and Execution of LLM Agents in an Auction Arenacited by 78
  3. 2023Igniting Language Intelligence: The Hitchhiker's Guide From Chain-of-Thought Reasoning to Language Agentscited by 72
  4. 2024Improving Machine Translation with Human Feedback: An Exploration of Quality Estimation as a Reward Modelcited by 33
  5. 2019A Dynamic Strategy Coach for Effective Negotiationcited by 26
  6. 2024Is Self-knowledge and Action Consistent or Not: Investigating Large Language Model's Personalitycited by 8
  7. 2023Towards a Neural Era in Dialogue Management for Collaboration: A Literature Surveycited by 3

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Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2024: 8; 2025: 16; 2026: 20.

44 papers.

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  1. 2025Advances and Challenges in Foundation Agents: From Brain-Inspired Intelligence to Evolutionary, Collaborative, and Safe Systemscited by 125
  2. 2024LLM as a Mastermind: A Survey of Strategic Reasoning with Large Language Modelscited by 97
  3. 2024From Individual to Society: A Survey on Social Simulation Driven by Large Language Model-based Agentscited by 76
  4. 2024Game-theoretic LLM: Agent Workflow for Negotiation Gamescited by 55
  5. 2024Richelieu: Self-Evolving LLM-Based Agents for AI Diplomacycited by 36
  6. 2024A Survey on Large Language Model-Based Social Agents in Game-Theoretic Scenarioscited by 23
  7. 2024GLEE: A Unified Framework and Benchmark for Language-based Economic Environmentscited by 19
  8. 2025Game Theory Meets Large Language Models: A Systematic Survey with Taxonomy and New Frontierscited by 14
  9. 2025Strategic Tradeoffs Between Humans and AI in Multi-Agent Bargainingcited by 11
  10. 2026AgenticPay: A Multi-Agent LLM Negotiation System for Buyer-Seller Transactionscited by 11
  11. 2025Debt Collection Negotiations with Large Language Models: An Evaluation System and Optimizing Decision Making with Multi-Agentcited by 9
  12. 2025Beyond Nash Equilibrium: Bounded Rationality of LLMs and humans in Strategic Decision-makingcited by 8
32 more
  1. 2025How Does Cognitive Bias Affect Large Language Models? A Case Study on the Anchoring Effect in Price Negotiation Simulationscited by 7
  2. 2025Evaluating & Reducing Deceptive Dialogue From Language Models with Multi-turn RLcited by 7
  3. 2025Advancing AI Negotiations: A Large-Scale Autonomous Negotiation Competitioncited by 6
  4. 2026TERMS-Bench: Diagnosing LLM Negotiation Agents Beyond Deal Ratecited by 6
  5. 2024CreDes: Causal Reasoning Enhancement and Dual-End Searching for Solving Long-Range Reasoning Problems using LLMscited by 5
  6. 2025Agent-to-Agent Theory of Mind: Testing Interlocutor Awareness among Large Language Modelscited by 5
  7. 2025ASTRA: A Negotiation Agent with Adaptive and Strategic Reasoning via Tool-integrated Action for Dynamic Offer Optimizationcited by 4
  8. 2025Evaluating Multi-Turn Bargain Skills in LLM-Based Seller Agentcited by 4
  9. 2026Real-Time Deadlines Reveal Fragile Temporal Adaptation in LLM Strategic Dialoguescited by 4
  10. 2026Instructing LLMs to Negotiate using Reinforcement Learning with Verifiable Rewardscited by 4
  11. 2025LLM Agents for Bargaining with Utility-based Feedbackcited by 3
  12. 2025On the Adaptive Psychological Persuasion of Large Language Modelscited by 3
  13. 2025PoliCon: Evaluating LLMs on Achieving Diverse Political Consensus Objectivescited by 2
  14. 2026MERIT Feedback Elicits Better Bargaining in LLM Negotiatorscited by 2
  15. 2026What Makes a Sale? Simulating End-to-End Seller--Buyer Retail Dynamics with LLM Agentscited by 2
  16. 2026MedConceal: A Benchmark for Clinical Hidden-Concern Reasoning Under Partial Observabilitycited by 2
  17. 2024A Fairness-Driven Method for Learning Human-Compatible Negotiation Strategiescited by 1
  18. 2026PieArena: Ranking and Profiling Language Agents in Realistic Negotiation Scenarioscited by 1
  19. 2026Profit is the Red Team: Stress-Testing Agents in Strategic Economic Interactionscited by 1
  20. 2026Commitment To Cooperation With Self-Negotiated Contractscited by 1
  21. 2026When Guardrails Look Effective: Construct Validity Failures in LLM Agent Commerce Evaluationcited by 1
  22. 2025Information Bargaining: Bilateral Commitment in Bayesian Persuasioncited by 0
  23. 2025GAIA: A General Agency Interaction Architecture for LLM-Human B2B Negotiation & Screeningcited by 0
  24. 2026Breaking the Impasse: Dual-Scale Evolutionary Policy Training for Social Language Agentscited by 0
  25. 2026Predicting Decisions of AI Agents from Limited Interaction through Text-Tabular Modelingcited by 0
  26. 2026PrefBench: Evaluating Zero-Shot LLM Agents in Hidden-Preference Personalized Pricing Negotiationscited by 0
  27. 2026LLM Agents for Deliberative Collaboration: A Study on Joint Decision Making Under Partial Observabilitycited by 0
  28. 2026Towards High-Level Semantic Intelligencecited by 0
  29. 2026Can LLM Agents Price Competitively? A Dynamic Multi-Attribute Auction Benchmark for Agentic Commercecited by 0
  30. 2026Deal Me Maybe: The Role of Emotions in Multi-Agent Negotiationcited by 0
  31. 2026Do LLM Agents Negotiate Rationally? A Mechanism-Design Framework for Verifiable Multi-Agent Interaction over A2A/MCPcited by 0
  32. 2026AI Alignment through a Game-theoretic Lens: A Surveycited by 0

Similar, not cited

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  1. 2026Used Car Salesbots? Honesty and Credulity of LLMs as Bargaining Agents under Partial Information
  2. 2024How Well Can LLMs Negotiate? NegotiationArena Platform and Analysis
  3. 2024AgreeMate: Teaching LLMs to Haggle
  4. 2026Do Small Language Models Learn to Negotiate? A Controlled Scaling Study of RL-Trained Sellers
  5. 2026Counterparty Modeling is Not Strategy: The Limits of LLM Negotiators
  6. 2026When LLM Agents Negotiate: Private Information and Dynamic Bargaining in Supply Chains
  7. 2026Competitive Market Behavior of LLMs
  8. 2026Training Language Models for Bilateral Trade with Private Information