mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

Legal Prompt Engineering for Multilingual Legal Judgement Prediction

arXiv 2212.02199 ↗First posted 5 Dec 2022cs.CL cs.AIcited by 54

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Abstract (arXiv)

Legal Prompt Engineering (LPE) or Legal Prompting is a process to guide and assist a large language model (LLM) with performing a natural legal language processing (NLLP) skill. Our goal is to use LPE with LLMs over long legal documents for the Legal Judgement Prediction (LJP) task. We investigate the performance of zero-shot LPE for given facts in case-texts from the European Court of Human Rights (in English) and the Federal Supreme Court of Switzerland (in German, French and Italian). Our results show that zero-shot LPE is better compared to the baselines, but it still falls short compared to current state of the art supervised approaches. Nevertheless, the results are important, since there was 1) no explicit domain-specific data used - so we show that the transfer to the legal domain is possible for general-purpose LLMs, and 2) the LLMs where directly applied without any further training or fine-tuning - which in turn saves immensely in terms of additional computational costs.

Key facts. Cited by 54 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 24 of its 30 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 5 Dec 2022.

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24 of 30 references.

References · 24

  1. 2018BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understandingcited by 40,204
  2. 2020Language Models are Few-Shot Learnerscited by 32,199
  3. 2019Exploring the Limits of Transfer Learning with a Unified Text-to-Text Transformercited by 14,491
  4. 2021On the Opportunities and Risks of Foundation Modelscited by 3,961
  5. 2021Pre-train, Prompt, and Predict: A Systematic Survey of Prompting Methods in Natural Language Processingcited by 2,222
  6. 2021Multitask Prompted Training Enables Zero-Shot Task Generalizationcited by 1,462
  7. 2021Fantastically Ordered Prompts and Where to Find Them: Overcoming Few-Shot Prompt Order Sensitivitycited by 1,122
  8. 2022Few-Shot Parameter-Efficient Fine-Tuning is Better and Cheaper than In-Context Learningcited by 886
  9. 2019Right for the Wrong Reasons: Diagnosing Syntactic Heuristics in Natural Language Inferencecited by 864
  10. 2021GPT Understands, Toocited by 715
  11. 2022GPT-NeoX-20B: An Open-Source Autoregressive Language Modelcited by 711
  12. 2019Benchmarking Zero-shot Text Classification: Datasets, Evaluation and Entailment Approachcited by 299
12 more
  1. 2022PromptSource: An Integrated Development Environment and Repository for Natural Language Promptscited by 288
  2. 2021CUAD: An Expert-Annotated NLP Dataset for Legal Contract Reviewcited by 232
  3. 2019Neural Legal Judgment Prediction in Englishcited by 208
  4. 2021OpenPrompt: An Open-source Framework for Prompt-learningcited by 148
  5. 2022mGPT: Few-Shot Learners Go Multilingualcited by 141
  6. 2019BillSum: A Corpus for Automatic Summarization of US Legislationcited by 117
  7. 2021ILDC for CJPE: Indian Legal Documents Corpus for Court Judgment Prediction and Explanationcited by 78
  8. 2020A Dataset for Statutory Reasoning in Tax Law Entailment and Question Answeringcited by 61
  9. 2021Swiss-Judgment-Prediction: A Multilingual Legal Judgment Prediction Benchmarkcited by 60
  10. 2022Revisiting Transformer-based Models for Long Document Classificationcited by 48
  11. 2022On the Role of Negative Precedent in Legal Outcome Predictioncited by 16
  12. 2021JUSTICE: A Benchmark Dataset for Supreme Court's Judgment Predictioncited by 9

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Citing papers per year: 2023: 17; 2024: 25; 2025: 9; 2026: 3.

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  1. 2023A Survey of Large Language Modelscited by 2,537
  2. 2023Red-Teaming Large Language Models using Chain of Utterances for Safety-Alignmentcited by 213
  3. 2023Domain Specialization as the Key to Make Large Language Models Disruptive: A Comprehensive Surveycited by 134
  4. 2024LHRS-Bot: Empowering Remote Sensing with VGI-Enhanced Large Multimodal Language Modelcited by 133
  5. 2024(A)I Am Not a Lawyer, But...: Engaging Legal Experts towards Responsible LLM Policies for Legal Advicecited by 61
  6. 2023DP-OPT: Make Large Language Model Your Privacy-Preserving Prompt Engineercited by 56
  7. 2025Breaking the Exploration Bottleneck: Rubric-Scaffolded Reinforcement Learning for General LLM Reasoningcited by 56
  8. 2023A Short Survey of Viewing Large Language Models in Legal Aspectcited by 51
  9. 2023Legal Syllogism Prompting: Teaching Large Language Models for Legal Judgment Predictioncited by 37
  10. 2023Interpretable Long-Form Legal Question Answering with Retrieval-Augmented Large Language Modelscited by 35
  11. 2025Fine-tuning Large Language Models for Improving Factuality in Legal Question Answeringcited by 28
  12. 2024HyPA-RAG: A Hybrid Parameter Adaptive Retrieval-Augmented Generation System for AI Legal and Policy Applicationscited by 22
38 more
  1. 2023Beyond Classification: Financial Reasoning in State-of-the-Art Language Modelscited by 18
  2. 2023Large Language Models for Travel Behavior Predictioncited by 13
  3. 2023Legal Summarisation through LLMs: The PRODIGIT Projectcited by 10
  4. 2024LLaMandement: Large Language Models for Summarization of French Legislative Proposalscited by 9
  5. 2025LegalReasoner: Step-wised Verification-Correction for Legal Judgment Reasoningcited by 9
  6. 2023Large Language Model Prompt Chaining for Long Legal Document Classificationcited by 7
  7. 2023Large Language Models for Propaganda Detectioncited by 7
  8. 2024Large Language Models "Ad Referendum": How Good Are They at Machine Translation in the Legal Domain?cited by 7
  9. 2024Investigating LLM Applications in E-Commercecited by 7
  10. 2024GPT-4 as Evaluator: Evaluating Large Language Models on Pest Management in Agriculturecited by 6
  11. 2024Exploring the Nexus of Large Language Models and Legal Systems: A Short Surveycited by 6
  12. 2024It Cannot Be Right If It Was Written by AI: On Lawyers' Preferences of Documents Perceived as Authored by an LLM vs a Humancited by 5
  13. 2025Multilingual Prompt Engineering in Large Language Models: A Survey Across NLP Taskscited by 5
  14. 2024Aalap: AI Assistant for Legal & Paralegal Functions in Indiacited by 4
  15. 2024Exploring Large Language Models and Hierarchical Frameworks for Classification of Large Unstructured Legal Documentscited by 4
  16. 2023Towards the Exploitation of LLM-based Chatbot for Providing Legal Support to Palestinian Cooperativescited by 2
  17. 2023Justifiable Artificial Intelligence: Engineering Large Language Models for Legal Applicationscited by 2
  18. 2024Knowledge Sharing in Manufacturing using Large Language Models: User Evaluation and Model Benchmarkingcited by 2
  19. 2024LAPIS: Language Model-Augmented Police Investigation Systemcited by 2
  20. 2024How Privacy-Savvy Are Large Language Models? A Case Study on Compliance and Privacy Technical Reviewcited by 2
  21. 2025An Explicit Syllogistic Legal Reasoning Framework for Large Language Modelscited by 2
  22. 2025Conditioning Large Language Models on Legal Systems? Detecting Punishable Hate Speechcited by 2
  23. 2023A Hierarchical Neural Framework for Classification and its Explanation in Large Unstructured Legal Documentscited by 1
  24. 2024Identification of Regulatory Requirements Relevant to Business Processes: A Comparative Study on Generative AI, Embedding-based Ranking, Crowd and Expert-driven Methodscited by 1
  25. 2024Gradable ChatGPT Translation Evaluationcited by 1
  26. 2024The Right Model for the Job: An Evaluation of Legal Multi-Label Classification Baselinescited by 1
  27. 2024InSaAF: Incorporating Safety through Accuracy and Fairness | Are LLMs ready for the Indian Legal Domain?cited by 1
  28. 2024Annotation and Classification of Relevant Clauses in Terms-and-Conditions Contractscited by 1
  29. 2024Measuring the Groundedness of Legal Question-Answering Systemscited by 1
  30. 2024Exploiting LLMs' Reasoning Capability to Infer Implicit Concepts in Legal Information Retrievalcited by 1
  31. 2025Aligning Language Models for Icelandic Legal Text Summarizationcited by 1
  32. 2026Gender Bias in LLMs: Preliminary Evidence from Shared Parenting Scenario in Czech Family Lawcited by 1
  33. 2023Making a Computational Attorneycited by 0
  34. 2023Legal NLP Meets MiCAR: Advancing the Analysis of Crypto White Paperscited by 0
  35. 2024Learning from Litigation: Graphs and LLMs for Retrieval and Reasoning in eDiscoverycited by 0
  36. 2024Towards Supporting Legal Argumentation with NLP: Is More Data Really All You Need?cited by 0
  37. 2024Prompting Encoder Models for Zero-Shot Classification: A Cross-Domain Study in Italiancited by 0
  38. 2024Answering Questions in Stages: Prompt Chaining for Contract QAcited by 0

50 most cited of 54 All 54 (JSON)