mlsanityData to 14 Oct 2026

On the Use of BERT for Automated Essay Scoring: Joint Learning of Multi-Scale Essay Representation

arXiv 2205.03835 ↗First posted 8 May 2022cs.CL cs.AIcited by 46

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Abstract (arXiv)

In recent years, pre-trained models have become dominant in most natural language processing (NLP) tasks. However, in the area of Automated Essay Scoring (AES), pre-trained models such as BERT have not been properly used to outperform other deep learning models such as LSTM. In this paper, we introduce a novel multi-scale essay representation for BERT that can be jointly learned. We also employ multiple losses and transfer learning from out-of-domain essays to further improve the performance. Experiment results show that our approach derives much benefit from joint learning of multi-scale essay representation and obtains almost the state-of-the-art result among all deep learning models in the ASAP task. Our multi-scale essay representation also generalizes well to CommonLit Readability Prize data set, which suggests that the novel text representation proposed in this paper may be a new and effective choice for long-text tasks.

Key facts. Cited by 46 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026). Builds on 11 of its 34 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 8 May 2022.

Builds on

11 of 34 references.

References · 11

  1. 2018BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understandingcited by 40,399
  2. 2014Adam: A Method for Stochastic Optimizationcited by 37,240
  3. 2020Longformer: The Long-Document Transformercited by 3,413
  4. 2021R-Drop: Regularized Dropout for Neural Networkscited by 202
  5. 2016Automatic Text Scoring Using Neural Networkscited by 51
  6. 2019Language models and Automated Essay Scoringcited by 35
  7. 2018Automated essay scoring with string kernels and word embeddingscited by 31
  8. 2017SkipFlow: Incorporating Neural Coherence Features for End-to-End Automatic Text Scoringcited by 22
  9. 2019Phenotyping of Clinical Notes with Improved Document Classification Models Using Contextualized Neural Language Modelscited by 20
  10. 2018Neural Automated Essay Scoring and Coherence Modeling for Adversarially Crafted Inputcited by 16
  11. 2020Happy Are Those Who Grade without Seeing: A Multi-Task Learning Approach to Grade Essays Using Gaze Behaviourcited by 9

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Cited by year (2026 to 14 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2022: 2; 2023: 4; 2024: 15; 2025: 10; 2026: 15.

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  1. 2024Human-AI Collaborative Essay Scoring: A Dual-Process Framework with LLMscited by 38
  2. 2024Can Large Language Models Automatically Score Proficiency of Written Essays?cited by 35
  3. 2023Prompt- and Trait Relation-aware Cross-prompt Essay Trait Scoringcited by 24
  4. 2024Rationale Behind Essay Scores: Enhancing S-LLM's Multi-Trait Essay Scoring with Rationale Generated by LLMscited by 22
  5. 2023ChineseWebText: Large-scale High-quality Chinese Web Text Extracted with Effective Evaluation Modelcited by 16
  6. 2024Autoregressive Multi-trait Essay Scoring via Reinforcement Learning with Scoring-aware Multiple Rewardscited by 12
  7. 2024Hidding the Ghostwriters: An Adversarial Evaluation of AI-Generated Student Essay Detectioncited by 10
  8. 2024Autoregressive Score Generation for Multi-trait Essay Scoringcited by 8
  9. 2024Beyond Agreement: Diagnosing the Rationale Alignment of Automated Essay Scoring Methods based on Linguistically-informed Counterfactualscited by 8
  10. 2024Benchmarking XAI Explanations with Human-Aligned Evaluationscited by 8
  11. 2025Improve LLM-based Automatic Essay Scoring with Linguistic Featurescited by 8
  12. 2025EssayJudge: A Multi-Granular Benchmark for Assessing Automated Essay Scoring Capabilities of Multimodal Large Language Modelscited by 7
34 more
  1. 2025CAFES: A Collaborative Multi-Agent Framework for Multi-Granular Multimodal Essay Scoringcited by 7
  2. 2025Teach-to-Reason with Scoring: Self-Explainable Rationale-Driven Multi-Trait Essay Scoringcited by 6
  3. 2025Opportunities and Challenges of LLMs in Education: An NLP Perspectivecited by 6
  4. 2024Automated essay scoring in Arabic: a dataset and analysis of a BERT-based systemcited by 5
  5. 2026FeedEval: Pedagogically Aligned Evaluation of LLM-Generated Essay Feedbackcited by 4
  6. 2022Data Augmentation for Automated Essay Scoring using Transformer Modelscited by 3
  7. 2023H-AES: Towards Automated Essay Scoring for Hindicited by 3
  8. 2024Automatic Essay Multi-dimensional Scoring with Fine-tuning and Multiple Regressioncited by 3
  9. 2024ChineseWebText 2.0: Large-Scale High-quality Chinese Web Text with Multi-dimensional and fine-grained informationcited by 3
  10. 2025SteLLA: A Structured Grading System Using LLMs with RAGcited by 3
  11. 2023Content Significance Distribution of Sub-Text Blocks in Articles and Its Application to Article-Organization Assessmentcited by 2
  12. 2024Transformer-based Joint Modelling for Automatic Essay Scoring and Off-Topic Detectioncited by 2
  13. 2026LLMs Do Not Grade Essays Like Humanscited by 2
  14. 2022Tapping the Potential of Coherence and Syntactic Features in Neural Models for Automatic Essay Scoringcited by 1
  15. 2025Towards Prompt Generalization: Grammar-aware Cross-Prompt Automated Essay Scoringcited by 1
  16. 2025Towards Human-Like Grading: A Unified LLM-Enhanced Framework for Subjective Question Evaluationcited by 1
  17. 2026Enhancing Automated Essay Scoring With Three Techniques: Two-Stage Fine-Tuning, Score Alignment, and Self-Trainingcited by 1
  18. 2026Trait-Aware Policy Optimization for Autoregressive Multi-Trait Essay Scoringcited by 1
  19. 2026SWIM: Student Writing Simulation via Proficiency-Conditioned Generationcited by 1
  20. 2024VerAs: Verify then Assess STEM Lab Reportscited by 0
  21. 2024Automated Essay Scoring Using Grammatical Variety and Errors with Multi-Task Learning and Item Response Theorycited by 0
  22. 2024RDBE: Reasoning Distillation-Based Evaluation Enhances Automatic Essay Scoringcited by 0
  23. 2025UKTA: Unified Korean Text Analyzercited by 0
  24. 2025PEMUTA: Pedagogically-Enriched Multi-Granular Undergraduate Thesis Assessmentcited by 0
  25. 2026Empirical Comparison of Encoder-Based Language Models and Feature-Based Supervised Machine Learning Approaches to Automated Scoring of Long Essayscited by 0
  26. 2026Automated Multiple Mini Interview (MMI) Scoringcited by 0
  27. 2026From Prompting to Preference Optimization: A Comparative Study of LLM-based Automated Essay Scoringcited by 0
  28. 2026GradeLegal: Automated Grading for German Legal Casescited by 0
  29. 2026Does Continued Pretraining on a Learner Corpus Improve Automated Essay Scoring on English Proficiency Tests? Evidence from EFCAMDATcited by 0
  30. 2026REC-CBM: Rubric-Aware Error-Correction Concept Bottleneck Models for Trustworthy Open-Ended Gradingcited by 0
  31. 2026MADRAG: Multi-Agent Debate with Retrieval-Augmented Generation for Training-Free Analytic Essay Scoringcited by 0
  32. 2026A Unified Framework to Elicit Structured Feedback for Interpretable Multi-Trait Essay Scoringcited by 0
  33. 2026GRASP: Graph-Retrieval Automated Scoring Pipeline for Label-Free Multi-Topic Essay Gradingcited by 0
  34. 2026Error-Supervised Synthetic Learner Writing for Automated Essay Scoringcited by 0