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Deep Learning for Hate Speech Detection in Tweets

arXiv 1706.00188 ↗First posted 1 Jun 2017cs.CL cs.IRcited by 180

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Abstract (arXiv)

Hate speech detection on Twitter is critical for applications like controversial event extraction, building AI chatterbots, content recommendation, and sentiment analysis. We define this task as being able to classify a tweet as racist, sexist or neither. The complexity of the natural language constructs makes this task very challenging. We perform extensive experiments with multiple deep learning architectures to learn semantic word embeddings to handle this complexity. Our experiments on a benchmark dataset of 16K annotated tweets show that such deep learning methods outperform state-of-the-art char/word n-gram methods by ~18 F1 points.

Key facts. Cited by 180 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 1 Jun 2017.

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Citing papers per year: 2021: 59; 2022: 35; 2023: 29; 2024: 25; 2025: 20; 2026: 12.

180 papers.

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  1. 2023Large Language Model Alignment: A Surveycited by 241
  2. 2021Latent Hatred: A Benchmark for Understanding Implicit Hate Speechcited by 216
  3. 2022Why Should Adversarial Perturbations be Imperceptible? Rethink the Research Paradigm in Adversarial NLPcited by 99
  4. 2021What's in the Box? A Preliminary Analysis of Undesirable Content in the Common Crawl Corpuscited by 79
  5. 2021Towards generalisable hate speech detection: a review on obstacles and solutionscited by 66
  6. 2021Disentangling Hate in Online Memescited by 46
  7. 2023"HOT" ChatGPT: The promise of ChatGPT in detecting and discriminating hateful, offensive, and toxic comments on social mediacited by 45
  8. 2023Evaluating GPT-3 Generated Explanations for Hateful Content Moderationcited by 44
  9. 2023HateMM: A Multi-Modal Dataset for Hate Video Classificationcited by 41
  10. 2022Large-Scale Hate Speech Detection with Cross-Domain Transfercited by 39
  11. 2021A Systematic Review of Reproducibility Research in Natural Language Processingcited by 34
  12. 2021DeepHate: Hate Speech Detection via Multi-Faceted Text Representationscited by 29
38 more
  1. 2024SLM-Mod: Small Language Models Surpass LLMs at Content Moderationcited by 27
  2. 2021A systematic review of Hate Speech automatic detection using Natural Language Processingcited by 26
  3. 2021Detection of Hate Speech using BERT and Hate Speech Word Embedding with Deep Modelcited by 26
  4. 2024Recent Advances in Hate Speech Moderation: Multimodality and the Role of Large Modelscited by 26
  5. 2021A Large-scale Dataset for Hate Speech Detection on Vietnamese Social Media Textscited by 25
  6. 2022Data Bootstrapping Approaches to Improve Low Resource Abusive Language Detection for Indic Languagescited by 23
  7. 2021"Subverting the Jewtocracy": Online Antisemitism Detection Using Multimodal Deep Learningcited by 21
  8. 2021Few-shot Instruction Prompts for Pretrained Language Models to Detect Social Biasescited by 21
  9. 2023MTTM: Metamorphic Testing for Textual Content Moderation Softwarecited by 20
  10. 2021AngryBERT: Joint Learning Target and Emotion for Hate Speech Detectioncited by 19
  11. 2022Emotion Based Hate Speech Detection using Multimodal Learningcited by 18
  12. 2022Proactively Reducing the Hate Intensity of Online Posts via Hate Speech Normalizationcited by 17
  13. 2021HateBR: A Large Expert Annotated Corpus of Brazilian Instagram Comments for Offensive Language and Hate Speech Detectioncited by 15
  14. 2021Lifelong Learning of Hate Speech Classification on Social Mediacited by 14
  15. 2024Better to Ask in English: Evaluation of Large Language Models on English, Low-resource and Cross-Lingual Settingscited by 14
  16. 2021DeToxy: A Large-Scale Multimodal Dataset for Toxicity Classification in Spoken Utterancescited by 13
  17. 2022Deep Learning for Hate Speech Detection: A Comparative Studycited by 13
  18. 2022Model Positionality and Computational Reflexivity: Promoting Reflexivity in Data Sciencecited by 13
  19. 2021Multi-Task Learning with Sentiment, Emotion, and Target Detection to Recognize Hate Speech and Offensive Languagecited by 12
  20. 2022AnnoBERT: Effectively Representing Multiple Annotators' Label Choices to Improve Hate Speech Detectioncited by 12
  21. 2021Leveraging Multilingual Transformers for Hate Speech Detectioncited by 11
  22. 2021You too Brutus! Trapping Hateful Users in Social Media: Challenges, Solutions & Insightscited by 11
  23. 2021ToxCCIn: Toxic Content Classification with Interpretabilitycited by 10
  24. 2022Generalizing Hate Speech Detection Using Multi-Task Learning: A Case Study of Political Public Figurescited by 10
  25. 2022Assessing the impact of contextual information in hate speech detectioncited by 10
  26. 2021An Information Retrieval Approach to Building Datasets for Hate Speech Detectioncited by 9
  27. 2022Vietnamese Hate and Offensive Detection using PhoBERT-CNN and Social Media Streaming Datacited by 9
  28. 2023An Invariant Learning Characterization of Controlled Text Generationcited by 9
  29. 2021Deciphering Implicit Hate: Evaluating Automated Detection Algorithms for Multimodal Hatecited by 8
  30. 2021Hate Speech Detection in Roman Urducited by 8
  31. 2022DataLab: A Platform for Data Analysis and Interventioncited by 8
  32. 2023Multi-modal Hate Speech Detection using Machine Learningcited by 8
  33. 2023Cyberbullying Detection for Low-resource Languages and Dialects: Review of the State of the Artcited by 8
  34. 2025Enhanced Multimodal Hate Video Detection via Channel-wise and Modality-wise Fusioncited by 8
  35. 2021Evaluation of Deep Learning Models for Hostility Detection in Hindi Textcited by 7
  36. 2021Hater-O-Genius Aggression Classification using Capsule Networkscited by 7
  37. 2021Hope Speech detection in under-resourced Kannada languagecited by 7
  38. 2021Character-level HyperNetworks for Hate Speech Detectioncited by 7

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