Evaluating GPT-3 Generated Explanations for Hateful Content Moderation
Not on the map. Why?
Abstract (arXiv)
Recent research has focused on using large language models (LLMs) to generate explanations for hate speech through fine-tuning or prompting. Despite the growing interest in this area, these generated explanations' effectiveness and potential limitations remain poorly understood. A key concern is that these explanations, generated by LLMs, may lead to erroneous judgments about the nature of flagged content by both users and content moderators. For instance, an LLM-generated explanation might inaccurately convince a content moderator that a benign piece of content is hateful. In light of this, we propose an analytical framework for examining hate speech explanations and conducted an extensive survey on evaluating such explanations. Specifically, we prompted GPT-3 to generate explanations for both hateful and non-hateful content, and a survey was conducted with 2,400 unique respondents to evaluate the generated explanations. Our findings reveal that (1) human evaluators rated the GPT-generated explanations as high quality in terms of linguistic fluency, informativeness, persuasiveness, and logical soundness, (2) the persuasive nature of these explanations, however, varied depending on the prompting strategy employed, and (3) this persuasiveness may result in incorrect judgments about the hatefulness of the content. Our study underscores the need for caution in applying LLM-generated explanations for content moderation. Code and results are available at https://github.com/Social-AI-Studio/GPT3-HateEval.
Key facts. Cited by 44 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 26 of its 57 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 28 May 2023.
Builds on
26 of 57 references.
References · 26
- 2020Language Models are Few-Shot Learnerscited by 32,199
- 2022Chain-of-Thought Prompting Elicits Reasoning in Large Language Modelscited by 12,302
- 2022Large Language Models are Zero-Shot Reasonerscited by 4,323
- 2019Language Models as Knowledge Bases?cited by 1,922
- 2021Multitask Prompted Training Enables Zero-Shot Task Generalizationcited by 1,462
- 2021Calibrate Before Use: Improving Few-Shot Performance of Language Modelscited by 1,371
- 2017Automated Hate Speech Detection and the Problem of Offensive Languagecited by 724
- 2022Automatic Chain of Thought Prompting in Large Language Modelscited by 684
- 2018e-SNLI: Natural Language Inference with Natural Language Explanationscited by 468
- 2020HateXplain: A Benchmark Dataset for Explainable Hate Speech Detectioncited by 403
- 2019Social Bias Frames: Reasoning about Social and Power Implications of Languagecited by 377
- 2022Self-critiquing models for assisting human evaluatorscited by 372
14 more
- 2022A Holistic Approach to Undesired Content Detection in the Real Worldcited by 337
- 2021Latent Hatred: A Benchmark for Understanding Implicit Hate Speechcited by 216
- 2017Deep Learning for Hate Speech Detection in Tweetscited by 180
- 2018Reducing Gender Bias in Abusive Language Detectioncited by 152
- 2021Reframing Human-AI Collaboration for Generating Free-Text Explanationscited by 125
- 2017Deceiving Google's Perspective API Built for Detecting Toxic Commentscited by 99
- 2021Is GPT-3 Text Indistinguishable from Human Text? Scarecrow: A Framework for Scrutinizing Machine Textcited by 89
- 2020Generating Counter Narratives against Online Hate Speech: Data and Strategiescited by 58
- 2021Detecting Hate Speech with GPT-3cited by 55
- 2022Toxicity Detection with Generative Prompt-based Inferencecited by 35
- 2021DeepHate: Hate Speech Detection via Multi-Faceted Text Representationscited by 29
- 2021AngryBERT: Joint Learning Target and Emotion for Hate Speech Detectioncited by 19
- 2023Model-Agnostic Meta-Learning for Multilingual Hate Speech Detectioncited by 11
- 2022Predicting Hate Intensity of Twitter Conversation Threadscited by 7
Built on by
Citing papers per year: 2023: 4; 2024: 14; 2025: 16; 2026: 10.
44 papers.
Sort:
By area:
- 2023Composite Backdoor Attacks Against Large Language Modelscited by 63
- 2024Explainable Fake News Detection With Large Language Model via Defense Among Competing Wisdomcited by 49
- 2024Content Moderation by LLM: From Accuracy to Legitimacycited by 30
- 2023Unveiling Gender Bias in Terms of Profession Across LLMs: Analyzing and Addressing Sociological Implicationscited by 29
- 2024Recent Advances in Hate Speech Moderation: Multimodality and the Role of Large Modelscited by 26
- 2024What Does the Bot Say? Opportunities and Risks of Large Language Models in Social Media Bot Detectioncited by 24
- 2024DOSA: A Dataset of Social Artifacts from Different Indian Geographical Subculturescited by 23
- 2024MemeGuard: An LLM and VLM-based Framework for Advancing Content Moderation via Meme Interventioncited by 20
- 2023User Modeling in the Era of Large Language Models: Current Research and Future Directionscited by 18
- 2024ChatGPT Rates Natural Language Explanation Quality Like Humans: But on Which Scales?cited by 17
- 2024Legilimens: Practical and Unified Content Moderation for Large Language Model Servicescited by 13
- 2025Is LLM an Overconfident Judge? Unveiling the Capabilities of LLMs in Detecting Offensive Language with Annotation Disagreementcited by 13
32 more
- 2025Demystifying Hateful Content: Leveraging Large Multimodal Models for Hateful Meme Detection with Explainable Decisionscited by 13
- 2025Persuasion Dynamics in LLMs: Investigating Robustness and Adaptability in Knowledge and Safety with DuET-PDcited by 13
- 2024SGHateCheck: Functional Tests for Detecting Hate Speech in Low-Resource Languages of Singaporecited by 10
- 2024BanTH: A Multi-label Hate Speech Detection Dataset for Transliterated Banglacited by 10
- 2025Cross-Modal Transfer from Memes to Videos: Addressing Data Scarcity in Hateful Video Detectioncited by 9
- 2023HateRephrase: Zero- and Few-Shot Reduction of Hate Intensity in Online Posts using Large Language Modelscited by 8
- 2025MemeIntel: Explainable Detection of Propagandistic and Hateful Memescited by 8
- 2025Guardians and Offenders: A Survey on Harmful Content Generation and Safety Mitigation of LLMcited by 8
- 2024Explainability and Hate Speech: Structured Explanations Make Social Media Moderators Fastercited by 7
- 2025PropXplain: Can LLMs Enable Explainable Propaganda Detection?cited by 7
- 2025Hate in Plain Sight: On the Risks of Moderating AI-Generated Hateful Illusionscited by 6
- 2025LLM-C3MOD: A Human-LLM Collaborative System for Cross-Cultural Hate Speech Moderationcited by 5
- 2025OASIS: A Multilingual and Multimodal Dataset for Culturally Grounded Spoken Visual QAcited by 5
- 2024HateCOT: An Explanation-Enhanced Dataset for Generalizable Offensive Speech Detection via Large Language Modelscited by 4
- 2025When Grammar Guides the Attack: Uncovering Control-Plane Vulnerabilities in LLMs with Structured Outputcited by 3
- 2025HateClipSeg: A Segment-Level Annotated Dataset for Fine-Grained Hate Video Detectioncited by 3
- 2026Beyond LLM-as-a-Judge: Deterministic Metrics for Multilingual Generative Text Evaluationcited by 3
- 2024Cross-lingual Offensive Language Detection: A Systematic Review of Datasets, Transfer Approaches and Challengescited by 2
- 2025Multi-Agent VLMs Guided Self-Training with PNU Loss for Low-Resource Offensive Content Detectioncited by 2
- 2026StreamSense: Streaming Social Task Detection with Selective Vision-Language Model Routingcited by 2
- 2024Exploring Large Language Models for Hate Speech Detection in Rioplatense Spanishcited by 1
- 2026RuleSafe-VL: Evaluating Rule-Conditioned Decision Reasoning in Vision-Language Content Moderationcited by 1
- 2026Aligning LLM Uncertainty with Human Disagreement in Subjectivity Analysiscited by 1
- 2025EdgeAIGuard: Agentic LLMs for Minor Protection in Digital Spacescited by 0
- 2025How Large Language Models play humans in online conversations: a simulated study of the 2016 US politics on Redditcited by 0
- 2025Empirical Prompt Engineering for Construct Identification with Large Language Modelscited by 0
- 2026HateXScore: A Metric Suite for Evaluating Reasoning Quality in Hate Speech Explanationscited by 0
- 2026Beyond Binary Classification: Detecting Fine-Grained Sexism in Social Media Videoscited by 0
- 2026A Graph-Enhanced Defense Framework for Explainable Fake News Detection with LLMcited by 0
- 2026Decoding Multimodal Cues: Unveiling the Implicit Meaning Behind Hateful Videoscited by 0
- 2026Whitewashing Hate, Smearing Harmless Content: Annotator-Style Rebuttal Attacks on LLM-Based Moderationcited by 0
- 2026Learn Before You Judge: Progressive Knowledge-to-Decision Alignment for Explainable Hateful Meme Detectioncited by 0
- 2026Learn Before You Judge: Progressive Knowledge-to-Decision Alignment for Explainable Hateful Meme Detection17 Sep 2026
- 2026Whitewashing Hate, Smearing Harmless Content: Annotator-Style Rebuttal Attacks on LLM-Based Moderation23 Aug 2026
- 2026Decoding Multimodal Cues: Unveiling the Implicit Meaning Behind Hateful Videos10 Jun 2026
- 2026Aligning LLM Uncertainty with Human Disagreement in Subjectivity Analysis11 May 2026
- 2026RuleSafe-VL: Evaluating Rule-Conditioned Decision Reasoning in Vision-Language Content Moderation8 May 2026
- 2026A Graph-Enhanced Defense Framework for Explainable Fake News Detection with LLM8 Apr 2026
- 2026Beyond LLM-as-a-Judge: Deterministic Metrics for Multilingual Generative Text Evaluation6 Apr 2026
- 2026Beyond Binary Classification: Detecting Fine-Grained Sexism in Social Media Videos17 Feb 2026
- 2026StreamSense: Streaming Social Task Detection with Selective Vision-Language Model Routing30 Jan 2026
- 2026HateXScore: A Metric Suite for Evaluating Reasoning Quality in Hate Speech Explanations20 Jan 2026
- 2025Empirical Prompt Engineering for Construct Identification with Large Language Models3 Dec 2025
- 2025Multi-Agent VLMs Guided Self-Training with PNU Loss for Low-Resource Offensive Content Detection14 Nov 2025
32 more
- 2025OASIS: A Multilingual and Multimodal Dataset for Culturally Grounded Spoken Visual QA7 Oct 2025
- 2025Persuasion Dynamics in LLMs: Investigating Robustness and Adaptability in Knowledge and Safety with DuET-PD24 Aug 2025
- 2025Guardians and Offenders: A Survey on Harmful Content Generation and Safety Mitigation of LLM7 Aug 2025
- 2025HateClipSeg: A Segment-Level Annotated Dataset for Fine-Grained Hate Video Detection3 Aug 2025
- 2025Hate in Plain Sight: On the Risks of Moderating AI-Generated Hateful Illusions30 Jul 2025
- 2025How Large Language Models play humans in online conversations: a simulated study of the 2016 US politics on Reddit23 Jun 2025
- 2025When Grammar Guides the Attack: Uncovering Control-Plane Vulnerabilities in LLMs with Structured Output31 Mar 2025
- 2025LLM-C3MOD: A Human-LLM Collaborative System for Cross-Cultural Hate Speech Moderation10 Mar 2025
- 2025EdgeAIGuard: Agentic LLMs for Minor Protection in Digital Spaces28 Feb 2025
- 2025MemeIntel: Explainable Detection of Propagandistic and Hateful Memes23 Feb 2025
- 2025PropXplain: Can LLMs Enable Explainable Propaganda Detection?23 Feb 2025
- 2025Demystifying Hateful Content: Leveraging Large Multimodal Models for Hateful Meme Detection with Explainable Decisions16 Feb 2025
- 2025Is LLM an Overconfident Judge? Unveiling the Capabilities of LLMs in Detecting Offensive Language with Annotation Disagreement10 Feb 2025
- 2025Cross-Modal Transfer from Memes to Videos: Addressing Data Scarcity in Hateful Video Detection26 Jan 2025
- 2024BanTH: A Multi-label Hate Speech Detection Dataset for Transliterated Bangla17 Oct 2024
- 2024Exploring Large Language Models for Hate Speech Detection in Rioplatense Spanish16 Oct 2024
- 2024Content Moderation by LLM: From Accuracy to Legitimacy5 Sep 2024
- 2024Legilimens: Practical and Unified Content Moderation for Large Language Model Services28 Aug 2024
- 2024MemeGuard: An LLM and VLM-based Framework for Advancing Content Moderation via Meme Intervention8 Jun 2024
- 2024Explainability and Hate Speech: Structured Explanations Make Social Media Moderators Faster6 Jun 2024
- 2024Explainable Fake News Detection With Large Language Model via Defense Among Competing Wisdom6 May 2024
- 2024SGHateCheck: Functional Tests for Detecting Hate Speech in Low-Resource Languages of Singapore3 May 2024
- 2024ChatGPT Rates Natural Language Explanation Quality Like Humans: But on Which Scales?26 Mar 2024
- 2024HateCOT: An Explanation-Enhanced Dataset for Generalizable Offensive Speech Detection via Large Language Models18 Mar 2024
- 2024DOSA: A Dataset of Social Artifacts from Different Indian Geographical Subcultures23 Feb 2024
- 2024What Does the Bot Say? Opportunities and Risks of Large Language Models in Social Media Bot Detection1 Feb 2024
- 2024Recent Advances in Hate Speech Moderation: Multimodality and the Role of Large Models30 Jan 2024
- 2024Cross-lingual Offensive Language Detection: A Systematic Review of Datasets, Transfer Approaches and Challenges17 Jan 2024
- 2023User Modeling in the Era of Large Language Models: Current Research and Future Directions11 Dec 2023
- 2023HateRephrase: Zero- and Few-Shot Reduction of Hate Intensity in Online Posts using Large Language Models21 Oct 2023
- 2023Composite Backdoor Attacks Against Large Language Models11 Oct 2023
- 2023Unveiling Gender Bias in Terms of Profession Across LLMs: Analyzing and Addressing Sociological Implications18 Jul 2023
- 2023Composite Backdoor Attacks Against Large Language Modelscited by 63
- 2024MemeGuard: An LLM and VLM-based Framework for Advancing Content Moderation via Meme Interventioncited by 20
- 2024Legilimens: Practical and Unified Content Moderation for Large Language Model Servicescited by 13
- 2025When Grammar Guides the Attack: Uncovering Control-Plane Vulnerabilities in LLMs with Structured Outputcited by 3
- 2025When Grammar Guides the Attack: Uncovering Control-Plane Vulnerabilities in LLMs with Structured Output31 Mar 2025
- 2024Legilimens: Practical and Unified Content Moderation for Large Language Model Services28 Aug 2024
- 2024MemeGuard: An LLM and VLM-based Framework for Advancing Content Moderation via Meme Intervention8 Jun 2024
- 2023Composite Backdoor Attacks Against Large Language Models11 Oct 2023
- 2024Explainable Fake News Detection With Large Language Model via Defense Among Competing Wisdomcited by 49
- 2024Content Moderation by LLM: From Accuracy to Legitimacycited by 30
- 2023Unveiling Gender Bias in Terms of Profession Across LLMs: Analyzing and Addressing Sociological Implicationscited by 29
- 2024Recent Advances in Hate Speech Moderation: Multimodality and the Role of Large Modelscited by 26
- 2024What Does the Bot Say? Opportunities and Risks of Large Language Models in Social Media Bot Detectioncited by 24
- 2023User Modeling in the Era of Large Language Models: Current Research and Future Directionscited by 18
- 2024ChatGPT Rates Natural Language Explanation Quality Like Humans: But on Which Scales?cited by 17
- 2025Is LLM an Overconfident Judge? Unveiling the Capabilities of LLMs in Detecting Offensive Language with Annotation Disagreementcited by 13
- 2025Persuasion Dynamics in LLMs: Investigating Robustness and Adaptability in Knowledge and Safety with DuET-PDcited by 13
- 2024SGHateCheck: Functional Tests for Detecting Hate Speech in Low-Resource Languages of Singaporecited by 10
- 2024BanTH: A Multi-label Hate Speech Detection Dataset for Transliterated Banglacited by 10
- 2025Cross-Modal Transfer from Memes to Videos: Addressing Data Scarcity in Hateful Video Detectioncited by 9
12 most cited of 33 All 33 (JSON)
- 2026Learn Before You Judge: Progressive Knowledge-to-Decision Alignment for Explainable Hateful Meme Detection17 Sep 2026
- 2026Whitewashing Hate, Smearing Harmless Content: Annotator-Style Rebuttal Attacks on LLM-Based Moderation23 Aug 2026
- 2026Decoding Multimodal Cues: Unveiling the Implicit Meaning Behind Hateful Videos10 Jun 2026
- 2026Aligning LLM Uncertainty with Human Disagreement in Subjectivity Analysis11 May 2026
- 2026RuleSafe-VL: Evaluating Rule-Conditioned Decision Reasoning in Vision-Language Content Moderation8 May 2026
- 2026A Graph-Enhanced Defense Framework for Explainable Fake News Detection with LLM8 Apr 2026
- 2026Beyond LLM-as-a-Judge: Deterministic Metrics for Multilingual Generative Text Evaluation6 Apr 2026
- 2026Beyond Binary Classification: Detecting Fine-Grained Sexism in Social Media Videos17 Feb 2026
- 2026HateXScore: A Metric Suite for Evaluating Reasoning Quality in Hate Speech Explanations20 Jan 2026
- 2025Empirical Prompt Engineering for Construct Identification with Large Language Models3 Dec 2025
- 2025OASIS: A Multilingual and Multimodal Dataset for Culturally Grounded Spoken Visual QA7 Oct 2025
- 2025Persuasion Dynamics in LLMs: Investigating Robustness and Adaptability in Knowledge and Safety with DuET-PD24 Aug 2025
12 newest of 33 All 33 (JSON)