mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

Analyzing the Targets of Hate in Online Social Media

arXiv 1603.07709 ↗First posted 24 Mar 2016cs.SIcited by 48

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Abstract (arXiv)

Social media systems allow Internet users a congenial platform to freely express their thoughts and opinions. Although this property represents incredible and unique communication opportunities, it also brings along important challenges. Online hate speech is an archetypal example of such challenges. Despite its magnitude and scale, there is a significant gap in understanding the nature of hate speech on social media. In this paper, we provide the first of a kind systematic large scale measurement study of the main targets of hate speech in online social media. To do that, we gather traces from two social media systems: Whisper and Twitter. We then develop and validate a methodology to identify hate speech on both these systems. Our results identify online hate speech forms and offer a broader understanding of the phenomenon, providing directions for prevention and detection approaches.

Key facts. Cited by 48 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 24 Mar 2016.

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Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2021: 12; 2022: 7; 2023: 9; 2024: 9; 2025: 9; 2026: 2.

48 papers.

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  1. 2021Annotators with Attitudes: How Annotator Beliefs And Identities Bias Toxic Language Detectioncited by 258
  2. 2021Latent Hatred: A Benchmark for Understanding Implicit Hate Speechcited by 216
  3. 2024Bias in Large Language Models: Origin, Evaluation, and Mitigationcited by 77
  4. 2021Hatemoji: A Test Suite and Adversarially-Generated Dataset for Benchmarking and Detecting Emoji-based Hatecited by 50
  5. 2023Facilitating Fine-grained Detection of Chinese Toxic Language: Hierarchical Taxonomy, Resources, and Benchmarkscited by 45
  6. 2023You Only Prompt Once: On the Capabilities of Prompt Learning on Large Language Models to Tackle Toxic Contentcited by 37
  7. 2022How Hate Speech Varies by Target Identity: A Computational Analysiscited by 23
  8. 2025VLM as Policy: Common-Law Content Moderation Framework for Short Video Platformcited by 19
  9. 2023Characterizing the Entities in Harmful Memes: Who is the Hero, the Villain, the Victim?cited by 14
  10. 2024MetaHate: A Dataset for Unifying Efforts on Hate Speech Detectioncited by 14
  11. 2021Multi-Task Learning with Sentiment, Emotion, and Target Detection to Recognize Hate Speech and Offensive Languagecited by 12
  12. 2025HateBench: Benchmarking Hate Speech Detectors on LLM-Generated Content and Hate Campaignscited by 10
36 more
  1. 2021Us vs. Them: A Dataset of Populist Attitudes, News Bias and Emotionscited by 9
  2. 2025STATE ToxiCN: A Benchmark for Span-level Target-Aware Toxicity Extraction in Chinese Hate Speech Detectioncited by 9
  3. 2023Revisiting Hate Speech Benchmarks: From Data Curation to System Deploymentcited by 7
  4. 2024Hate Speech Detection with Generalizable Target-aware Fairnesscited by 7
  5. 2021One to rule them all: Towards Joint Indic Language Hate Speech Detectioncited by 6
  6. 2024The Unseen Targets of Hate -- A Systematic Review of Hateful Communication Datasetscited by 6
  7. 2024Towards Efficient and Explainable Hate Speech Detection via Model Distillationcited by 5
  8. 2024A Dataset for the Detection of Dehumanizing Languagecited by 4
  9. 2023Analyzing Norm Violations in Live-Stream Chatcited by 3
  10. 2021American Hate Crime Trends Prediction with Event Extractioncited by 2
  11. 2022Combating high variance in Data-Scarce Implicit Hate Speech Classificationcited by 2
  12. 2022Quantifying How Hateful Communities Radicalize Online Userscited by 2
  13. 2023Focal Inferential Infusion Coupled with Tractable Density Discrimination for Implicit Hate Detectioncited by 2
  14. 2025Mapping the Italian Telegram Ecosystem: Communities, Toxicity, and Hate Speechcited by 2
  15. 2025Conditioning Large Language Models on Legal Systems? Detecting Punishable Hate Speechcited by 2
  16. 2025Fine-Grained Chinese Hate Speech Understanding: Span-Level Resources, Coded Term Lexicon, and Enhanced Detection Frameworkscited by 2
  17. 2021A study of text representations in Hate Speech Detectioncited by 1
  18. 2021How Hateful are Movies? A Study and Prediction on Movie Subtitlescited by 1
  19. 2021Battling Hateful Content in Indic Languages HASOC '21cited by 1
  20. 2022Leveraging Dependency Grammar for Fine-Grained Offensive Language Detection using Graph Convolutional Networkscited by 1
  21. 2023SafeWebUH at SemEval-2023 Task 11: Learning Annotator Disagreement in Derogatory Text: Comparison of Direct Training vs Aggregationcited by 1
  22. 2024COT: A Generative Approach for Hate Speech Counter-Narratives via Contrastive Optimal Transportcited by 1
  23. 2024Characterization of Political Polarized Users Attacked by Language Toxicity on Twittercited by 1
  24. 2025Culture Matters in Toxic Language Detection in Persiancited by 1
  25. 2021UTNLP at SemEval-2021 Task 5: A Comparative Analysis of Toxic Span Detection using Attention-based, Named Entity Recognition, and Ensemble Modelscited by 0
  26. 2021Reproducibility Report: Contextualizing Hate Speech Classifiers with Post-hoc Explanationcited by 0
  27. 2022Dominant Set-based Active Learning for Text Classification and its Application to Online Social Mediacited by 0
  28. 2022Placing M-Phasis on the Plurality of Hate: A Feature-Based Corpus of Hate Onlinecited by 0
  29. 2022Don't Take it Personally: Analyzing Gender and Age Differences in Ratings of Online Humorcited by 0
  30. 2023Informed Machine Learning, Centrality, CNN, Relevant Document Detection, Repatriation of Indigenous Human Remainscited by 0
  31. 2023Toxic comments reduce the activity of volunteer editors on Wikipediacited by 0
  32. 2024A Target-Aware Analysis of Data Augmentation for Hate Speech Detectioncited by 0
  33. 2025Defining, Understanding, and Detecting Online Toxicity: Challenges and Machine Learning Approachescited by 0
  34. 2025A Use-Case Specific Dataset for Measuring Dimensions of Responsible Performance in LLM-generated Textcited by 0
  35. 2026FC-CONAN: An Exhaustively Paired Dataset for Robust Evaluation of Retrieval Systemscited by 0
  36. 2026Unifying Models of Intergroup Hostility in Online Discoursecited by 0