mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

How Hate Speech Varies by Target Identity: A Computational Analysis

arXiv 2210.10839 ↗First posted 19 Oct 2022cs.CLcited by 23

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Abstract (arXiv)

This paper investigates how hate speech varies in systematic ways according to the identities it targets. Across multiple hate speech datasets annotated for targeted identities, we find that classifiers trained on hate speech targeting specific identity groups struggle to generalize to other targeted identities. This provides empirical evidence for differences in hate speech by target identity; we then investigate which patterns structure this variation. We find that the targeted demographic category (e.g. gender/sexuality or race/ethnicity) appears to have a greater effect on the language of hate speech than does the relative social power of the targeted identity group. We also find that words associated with hate speech targeting specific identities often relate to stereotypes, histories of oppression, current social movements, and other social contexts specific to identities. These experiments suggest the importance of considering targeted identity, as well as the social contexts associated with these identities, in automated hate speech classification.

Key facts. Cited by 23 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 22 of its 56 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 19 Oct 2022.

Builds on

22 of 56 references.

References · 22

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  4. 2020HateXplain: A Benchmark Dataset for Explainable Hate Speech Detectioncited by 403
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  6. 2019Social Bias Frames: Reasoning about Social and Power Implications of Languagecited by 377
  7. 2021Annotators with Attitudes: How Annotator Beliefs And Identities Bias Toxic Language Detectioncited by 258
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10 more
  1. 2021A Survey of Race, Racism, and Anti-Racism in NLPcited by 74
  2. 2020Measuring a hate speech spectrum with faceted Rasch item response theory and perspective-aware, explainable-by-design deep learningcited by 67
  3. 2021Towards generalisable hate speech detection: a review on obstacles and solutionscited by 66
  4. 2018Hate Lingo: A Target-based Linguistic Analysis of Hate Speech in Social Mediacited by 59
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Citing papers per year: 2023: 5; 2024: 8; 2025: 7; 2026: 3.

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  1. 2023From Pretraining Data to Language Models to Downstream Tasks: Tracking the Trails of Political Biases Leading to Unfair NLP Modelscited by 257
  2. 2024Recent Advances in Hate Speech Moderation: Multimodality and the Role of Large Modelscited by 26
  3. 2024Can LLMs Recognize Toxicity? A Structured Investigation Framework and Toxicity Metriccited by 23
  4. 2025Demystifying Hateful Content: Leveraging Large Multimodal Models for Hateful Meme Detection with Explainable Decisionscited by 13
  5. 2024Divine LLaMAs: Bias, Stereotypes, Stigmatization, and Emotion Representation of Religion in Large Language Modelscited by 12
  6. 2025Lost in Moderation: How Commercial Content Moderation APIs Over- and Under-Moderate Group-Targeted Hate Speech and Linguistic Variationscited by 12
  7. 2024DefVerify: Do Hate Speech Models Reflect Their Dataset's Definition?cited by 6
  8. 2025Language Models Predict Empathy Gaps Between Social In-groups and Out-groupscited by 6
  9. 2023Identity Construction in a Misogynist Incels Forumcited by 3
  10. 2023Hate Speech Detection in Limited Data Contexts using Synthetic Data Generationcited by 3
  11. 2024Watching the Watchers: A Comparative Fairness Audit of Cloud-based Content Moderation Servicescited by 3
  12. 2024AUTALIC: A Dataset for Anti-AUTistic Ableist Language In Contextcited by 3
11 more
  1. 2025Algorithmic Fairness in NLP: Persona-Infused LLMs for Human-Centric Hate Speech Detectioncited by 2
  2. 2023A Weakly Supervised Classifier and Dataset of White Supremacist Languagecited by 1
  3. 2023Improving Cross-Domain Hate Speech Generalizability with Emotion Knowledgecited by 1
  4. 2024Measuring Spiritual Values and Bias of Large Language Modelscited by 1
  5. 2024Who Speaks Matters: Analysing the Influence of the Speaker's Ethnicity on Hate Classificationcited by 1
  6. 2025Compositional Generalisation for Explainable Hate Speech Detectioncited by 1
  7. 2025Ideology-Based LLMs for Content Moderationcited by 1
  8. 2026Bye Bye Perspective API: Lessons for Building and Governing Measurement Infrastructurecited by 1
  9. 2025Knowledge-guided Continual Learning for Behavioral Analytics Systemscited by 0
  10. 2026Improving Implicit Hate Speech Detection via a Community-Driven Multi-Agent Frameworkcited by 0
  11. 2026Navigating the digital spectrum: Assessing political bias, stability, and downstream fairness in Large Language Modelscited by 0