DeepfakeUCL: Deepfake Detection via Unsupervised Contrastive Learning
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Abstract (arXiv)
Face deepfake detection has seen impressive results recently. Nearly all existing deep learning techniques for face deepfake detection are fully supervised and require labels during training. In this paper, we design a novel deepfake detection method via unsupervised contrastive learning. We first generate two different transformed versions of an image and feed them into two sequential sub-networks, i.e., an encoder and a projection head. The unsupervised training is achieved by maximizing the correspondence degree of the outputs of the projection head. To evaluate the detection performance of our unsupervised method, we further use the unsupervised features to train an efficient linear classification network. Extensive experiments show that our unsupervised learning method enables comparable detection performance to state-of-the-art supervised techniques, in both the intra- and inter-dataset settings. We also conduct ablation studies for our method.
Key facts. Cited by 20 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 21 of its 32 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 23 Apr 2021.
Builds on
21 of 32 references.
References · 21
- 2020A Simple Framework for Contrastive Learning of Visual Representationscited by 11,979
- 2014Going Deeper with Convolutionscited by 4,231
- 2016Xception: Deep Learning with Depthwise Separable Convolutionscited by 2,320
- 2019FaceForensics++: Learning to Detect Manipulated Facial Imagescited by 1,095
- 2020Face2Face: Real-time Face Capture and Reenactment of RGB Videoscited by 631
- 2019Celeb-DF: A Large-scale Challenging Dataset for DeepFake Forensicscited by 573
- 2014Deep metric learning using Triplet networkcited by 421
- 2018MesoNet: a Compact Facial Video Forgery Detection Networkcited by 409
- 2018Exposing DeepFake Videos By Detecting Face Warping Artifactscited by 318
- 2018Exposing Deep Fakes Using Inconsistent Head Posescited by 294
- 2019On the Detection of Digital Face Manipulationcited by 259
- 2019Deferred Neural Rendering: Image Synthesis using Neural Texturescited by 253
9 more
- 2018Capsule-Forensics: Using Capsule Networks to Detect Forged Images and Videoscited by 180
- 2019Multi-task Learning For Detecting and Segmenting Manipulated Facial Images and Videoscited by 130
- 2018Two-Stream Neural Networks for Tampered Face Detectioncited by 125
- 2019Recurrent Convolutional Strategies for Face Manipulation Detection in Videoscited by 118
- 2016Learning Residual Images for Face Attribute Manipulationcited by 40
- 2016Inverting face embeddings with convolutional neural networkscited by 22
- 2020DeepFakes Evolution: Analysis of Facial Regions and Fake Detection Performancecited by 22
- 2020Deep Detection for Face Manipulationcited by 8
- 2019Explicit Facial Expression Transfer via Fine-Grained Representationscited by 2
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Citing papers per year: 2022: 6; 2023: 5; 2024: 3; 2025: 5; 2026: 1.
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- 2022Leveraging Real Talking Faces via Self-Supervision for Robust Forgery Detectioncited by 130
- 2022CORE: Consistent Representation Learning for Face Forgery Detectioncited by 73
- 2024Exposing the Deception: Uncovering More Forgery Clues for Deepfake Detectioncited by 47
- 2023DFIL: Deepfake Incremental Learning by Exploiting Domain-invariant Forgery Cluescited by 23
- 2024ManiFPT: Defining and Analyzing Fingerprints of Generative Modelscited by 18
- 2025From Specificity to Generality: Revisiting Generalizable Artifacts in Detecting Face Deepfakescited by 14
- 2022CFL-Net: Image Forgery Localization Using Contrastive Learningcited by 12
- 2022FakeOut: Leveraging Out-of-domain Self-supervision for Multi-modal Video Deepfake Detectioncited by 8
- 2023Self-Supervised Graph Transformer for Deepfake Detectioncited by 6
- 2023Unmasking Deepfakes: Masked Autoencoding Spatiotemporal Transformers for Enhanced Video Forgery Detectioncited by 4
- 2024Generalized Deepfake Attributioncited by 3
- 2022Fighting Malicious Media Data: A Survey on Tampering Detection and Deepfake Detectioncited by 2
8 more
- 2022Deepfake Detection via Joint Unsupervised Reconstruction and Supervised Classificationcited by 1
- 2023Unearthing Common Inconsistency for Generalisable Deepfake Detectioncited by 1
- 2023DeepFidelity: Perceptual Forgery Fidelity Assessment for Deepfake Detectioncited by 1
- 2025Cross-Branch Orthogonality for Improved Generalization in Face Deepfake Detectioncited by 1
- 2025Trident: Detecting Face Forgeries with Adversarial Triplet Learningcited by 1
- 2025Causal Fingerprints of AI Generative Modelscited by 1
- 2025Zero-Shot Visual Deepfake Detection: Can AI Predict and Prevent Fake Content Before It's Created?cited by 1
- 2026Unveiling Deepfakes: A Frequency-Aware Triple Branch Network for Deepfake Detectioncited by 0
- 2026Unveiling Deepfakes: A Frequency-Aware Triple Branch Network for Deepfake Detection19 Apr 2026
- 2025Zero-Shot Visual Deepfake Detection: Can AI Predict and Prevent Fake Content Before It's Created?22 Sep 2025
- 2025Causal Fingerprints of AI Generative Models18 Sep 2025
- 2025Trident: Detecting Face Forgeries with Adversarial Triplet Learning29 Jun 2025
- 2025Cross-Branch Orthogonality for Improved Generalization in Face Deepfake Detection8 May 2025
- 2025From Specificity to Generality: Revisiting Generalizable Artifacts in Detecting Face Deepfakes7 Apr 2025
- 2024Generalized Deepfake Attribution26 Jun 2024
- 2024Exposing the Deception: Uncovering More Forgery Clues for Deepfake Detection4 Mar 2024
- 2024ManiFPT: Defining and Analyzing Fingerprints of Generative Models16 Feb 2024
- 2023DeepFidelity: Perceptual Forgery Fidelity Assessment for Deepfake Detection7 Dec 2023
- 2023Unearthing Common Inconsistency for Generalisable Deepfake Detection20 Nov 2023
- 2023DFIL: Deepfake Incremental Learning by Exploiting Domain-invariant Forgery Clues18 Sep 2023
8 more
- 2023Self-Supervised Graph Transformer for Deepfake Detection27 Jul 2023
- 2023Unmasking Deepfakes: Masked Autoencoding Spatiotemporal Transformers for Enhanced Video Forgery Detection12 Jun 2023
- 2022Fighting Malicious Media Data: A Survey on Tampering Detection and Deepfake Detection12 Dec 2022
- 2022FakeOut: Leveraging Out-of-domain Self-supervision for Multi-modal Video Deepfake Detection1 Dec 2022
- 2022Deepfake Detection via Joint Unsupervised Reconstruction and Supervised Classification24 Nov 2022
- 2022CFL-Net: Image Forgery Localization Using Contrastive Learning4 Oct 2022
- 2022CORE: Consistent Representation Learning for Face Forgery Detection6 Jun 2022
- 2022Leveraging Real Talking Faces via Self-Supervision for Robust Forgery Detection18 Jan 2022
- 2022Leveraging Real Talking Faces via Self-Supervision for Robust Forgery Detectioncited by 130
- 2022CORE: Consistent Representation Learning for Face Forgery Detectioncited by 73
- 2024Exposing the Deception: Uncovering More Forgery Clues for Deepfake Detectioncited by 47
- 2023DFIL: Deepfake Incremental Learning by Exploiting Domain-invariant Forgery Cluescited by 23
- 2024ManiFPT: Defining and Analyzing Fingerprints of Generative Modelscited by 18
- 2025From Specificity to Generality: Revisiting Generalizable Artifacts in Detecting Face Deepfakescited by 14
- 2022CFL-Net: Image Forgery Localization Using Contrastive Learningcited by 12
- 2022FakeOut: Leveraging Out-of-domain Self-supervision for Multi-modal Video Deepfake Detectioncited by 8
- 2023Self-Supervised Graph Transformer for Deepfake Detectioncited by 6
- 2023Unmasking Deepfakes: Masked Autoencoding Spatiotemporal Transformers for Enhanced Video Forgery Detectioncited by 4
- 2024Generalized Deepfake Attributioncited by 3
- 2022Fighting Malicious Media Data: A Survey on Tampering Detection and Deepfake Detectioncited by 2
12 most cited of 19 All 19 (JSON)
- 2026Unveiling Deepfakes: A Frequency-Aware Triple Branch Network for Deepfake Detection19 Apr 2026
- 2025Causal Fingerprints of AI Generative Models18 Sep 2025
- 2025Trident: Detecting Face Forgeries with Adversarial Triplet Learning29 Jun 2025
- 2025Cross-Branch Orthogonality for Improved Generalization in Face Deepfake Detection8 May 2025
- 2025From Specificity to Generality: Revisiting Generalizable Artifacts in Detecting Face Deepfakes7 Apr 2025
- 2024Generalized Deepfake Attribution26 Jun 2024
- 2024Exposing the Deception: Uncovering More Forgery Clues for Deepfake Detection4 Mar 2024
- 2024ManiFPT: Defining and Analyzing Fingerprints of Generative Models16 Feb 2024
- 2023DeepFidelity: Perceptual Forgery Fidelity Assessment for Deepfake Detection7 Dec 2023
- 2023Unearthing Common Inconsistency for Generalisable Deepfake Detection20 Nov 2023
- 2023DFIL: Deepfake Incremental Learning by Exploiting Domain-invariant Forgery Clues18 Sep 2023
- 2023Self-Supervised Graph Transformer for Deepfake Detection27 Jul 2023
12 newest of 19 All 19 (JSON)