mlsanityData to 14 Oct 2026

Re-imagining Algorithmic Fairness in India and Beyond

arXiv 2101.09995 ↗First posted 25 Jan 2021cs.CY cs.AI cs.CLcited by 104

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Abstract (arXiv)

Conventional algorithmic fairness is West-centric, as seen in its sub-groups, values, and methods. In this paper, we de-center algorithmic fairness and analyse AI power in India. Based on 36 qualitative interviews and a discourse analysis of algorithmic deployments in India, we find that several assumptions of algorithmic fairness are challenged. We find that in India, data is not always reliable due to socio-economic factors, ML makers appear to follow double standards, and AI evokes unquestioning aspiration. We contend that localising model fairness alone can be window dressing in India, where the distance between models and oppressed communities is large. Instead, we re-imagine algorithmic fairness in India and provide a roadmap to re-contextualise data and models, empower oppressed communities, and enable Fair-ML ecosystems.

Key facts. Cited by 104 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026). Builds on 32 of its 227 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 25 Jan 2021.

Builds on

32 of 227 references.

References · 32

  1. 2019A Survey on Bias and Fairness in Machine Learningcited by 1,917
  2. 2018Datasheets for Datasetscited by 1,386
  3. 2016Man is to Computer Programmer as Woman is to Homemaker? Debiasing Word Embeddingscited by 1,312
  4. 2018Model Cards for Model Reportingcited by 1,080
  5. 2016Adversarial Machine Learning at Scalecited by 936
  6. 2018Mitigating Unwanted Biases with Adversarial Learningcited by 663
  7. 2017Men Also Like Shopping: Reducing Gender Bias Amplification using Corpus-level Constraintscited by 420
  8. 2019Mitigating Gender Bias in Natural Language Processing: Literature Reviewcited by 287
  9. 2018Improving fairness in machine learning systems: What do industry practitioners need?cited by 262
  10. 2019Racial Bias in Hate Speech and Abusive Language Detection Datasetscited by 209
  11. 2019Counterfactual Data Augmentation for Mitigating Gender Stereotypes in Languages with Rich Morphologycited by 200
  12. 2020Fairness in Machine Learningcited by 194
20 more
  1. 2020Social Biases in NLP Models as Barriers for Persons with Disabilitiescited by 182
  2. 2017No Classification without Representation: Assessing Geodiversity Issues in Open Data Sets for the Developing Worldcited by 153
  3. 2018Counterfactual Fairness in Text Classification through Robustnesscited by 151
  4. 2017Fairness in Machine Learning: Lessons from Political Philosophycited by 149
  5. 2019Black is to Criminal as Caucasian is to Police: Detecting and Removing Multiclass Bias in Word Embeddingscited by 147
  6. 2019Towards a Critical Race Methodology in Algorithmic Fairnesscited by 125
  7. 2018Optimization with Non-Differentiable Constraints with Applications to Fairness, Recall, Churn, and Other Goalscited by 103
  8. 201850 Years of Test (Un)fairness: Lessons for Machine Learningcited by 101
  9. 2020Decolonial AI: Decolonial Theory as Sociotechnical Foresight in Artificial Intelligencecited by 101
  10. 2019Perturbation Sensitivity Analysis to Detect Unintended Model Biasescited by 74
  11. 2018Residual Unfairness in Fair Machine Learning from Prejudiced Datacited by 49
  12. 2020Participatory Problem Formulation for Fairer Machine Learning Through Community Based System Dynamicscited by 31
  13. 2019Global AI Ethics: A Review of the Social Impacts and Ethical Implications of Artificial Intelligencecited by 21
  14. 2019On the Legal Compatibility of Fairness Definitionscited by 19
  15. 2020Entity-Switched Datasets: An Approach to Auditing the In-Domain Robustness of Named Entity Recognition Modelscited by 13
  16. 2018A Broader View on Bias in Automated Decision-Making: Reflecting on Epistemology and Dynamicscited by 10
  17. 2019Smart, Responsible, and Upper Caste Only: Measuring Caste Attitudes through Large-Scale Analysis of Matrimonial Profilescited by 5
  18. 2020Expected Utilitarianismcited by 2
  19. 2018Economic Impact of Discoverability of Localities and Addresses in Indiacited by 1
  20. 2018Assignment Mechanisms under Distributional Constraintscited by 1

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Cited by year (2026 to 14 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2021: 13; 2022: 21; 2023: 19; 2024: 21; 2025: 18; 2026: 12.

104 papers.

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  1. 2022PaLM: Scaling Language Modeling with Pathwayscited by 5,326
  2. 2022LaMDA: Language Models for Dialog Applicationscited by 1,220
  3. 2023PaLM 2 Technical Reportcited by 1,162
  4. 2021Ethical and social risks of harm from Language Modelscited by 966
  5. 2023Towards Measuring the Representation of Subjective Global Opinions in Language Modelscited by 437
  6. 2021Societal Biases in Language Generation: Progress and Challengescited by 202
  7. 2024Towards Measuring and Modeling "Culture" in LLMs: A Surveycited by 167
  8. 2023Evaluating the Social Impact of Generative AI Systems in Systems and Societycited by 92
  9. 2021Assessing the Fairness of AI Systems: AI Practitioners' Processes, Challenges, and Needs for Supportcited by 63
  10. 2022CrowdWorkSheets: Accounting for Individual and Collective Identities Underlying Crowdsourced Dataset Annotationcited by 59
  11. 2022Re-contextualizing Fairness in NLP: The Case of Indiacited by 55
  12. 2023AI's Regimes of Representation: A Community-centered Study of Text-to-Image Models in South Asiacited by 54
38 more
  1. 2021Whose Ground Truth? Accounting for Individual and Collective Identities Underlying Dataset Annotationcited by 52
  2. 2022Detecting Shortcut Learning for Fair Medical AI using Shortcut Testingcited by 52
  3. 2021Changing the World by Changing the Datacited by 51
  4. 2022Evaluation Gaps in Machine Learning Practicecited by 49
  5. 2022Characteristics of Harmful Text: Towards Rigorous Benchmarking of Language Modelscited by 49
  6. 2024Ethical Reasoning and Moral Value Alignment of LLMs Depend on the Language we Prompt them incited by 46
  7. 2022Diagnosing failures of fairness transfer across distribution shift in real-world medical settingscited by 45
  8. 2024A Toolbox for Surfacing Health Equity Harms and Biases in Large Language Modelscited by 45
  9. 2023Comparing Biases and the Impact of Multilingual Training across Multiple Languagescited by 36
  10. 2022Exploring How Machine Learning Practitioners (Try To) Use Fairness Toolkitscited by 34
  11. 2024IndiBias: A Benchmark Dataset to Measure Social Biases in Language Models for Indian Contextcited by 32
  12. 2021Detecting Cross-Geographic Biases in Toxicity Modeling on Social Mediacited by 31
  13. 2023On Evaluating and Mitigating Gender Biases in Multilingual Settingscited by 31
  14. 2022Seeing Like a Toolkit: How Toolkits Envision the Work of AI Ethicscited by 28
  15. 2021Fairness Perceptions of Algorithmic Decision-Making: A Systematic Review of the Empirical Literaturecited by 27
  16. 2022From plane crashes to algorithmic harm: applicability of safety engineering frameworks for responsible MLcited by 27
  17. 2024Culturally Aware and Adapted NLP: A Taxonomy and a Survey of the State of the Artcited by 26
  18. 2024Do Generative AI Models Output Harm while Representing Non-Western Cultures: Evidence from A Community-Centered Approachcited by 26
  19. 2021Reliability Testing for Natural Language Processing Systemscited by 25
  20. 2022Rethinking Fairness: An Interdisciplinary Survey of Critiques of Hegemonic ML Fairness Approachescited by 25
  21. 2023Building Socio-culturally Inclusive Stereotype Resources with Community Engagementcited by 25
  22. 2024"They are uncultured": Unveiling Covert Harms and Social Threats in LLM Generated Conversationscited by 25
  23. 2024SeeGULL Multilingual: a Dataset of Geo-Culturally Situated Stereotypescited by 24
  24. 2022Cultural Incongruencies in Artificial Intelligencecited by 21
  25. 2022Evaluating the Diversity, Equity and Inclusion of NLP Technology: A Case Study for Indian Languagescited by 20
  26. 2022A Human Rights-Based Approach to Responsible AIcited by 20
  27. 2025Fairness through Difference Awareness: Measuring Desired Group Discrimination in LLMscited by 20
  28. 2023Indian-BhED: A Dataset for Measuring India-Centric Biases in Large Language Modelscited by 18
  29. 2025The Case for "Thick Evaluations" of Cultural Representation in AIcited by 17
  30. 2023Fairness in Language Models Beyond English: Gaps and Challengescited by 16
  31. 2024Towards Geographic Inclusion in the Evaluation of Text-to-Image Modelscited by 16
  32. 2023Out of Context: Investigating the Bias and Fairness Concerns of "Artificial Intelligence as a Service"cited by 15
  33. 2023Humans, AI, and Context: Understanding End-Users' Trust in a Real-World Computer Vision Applicationcited by 14
  34. 2025How Deep Is Representational Bias in LLMs? The Cases of Caste and Religioncited by 14
  35. 2023Scaling Laws Do Not Scalecited by 13
  36. 2021Beyond "Fairness:" Structural (In)justice Lenses on AI for Educationcited by 12
  37. 2021FairCanary: Rapid Continuous Explainable Fairnesscited by 12
  38. 2024Blind Spots and Biases: Exploring the Role of Annotator Cognitive Biases in NLPcited by 11

50 most cited of 104 All 104 (JSON)