mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

Generating Counter Narratives against Online Hate Speech: Data and Strategies

arXiv 2004.04216 ↗First posted 8 Apr 2020cs.CL cs.CY cs.SIcited by 58

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Abstract (arXiv)

Recently research has started focusing on avoiding undesired effects that come with content moderation, such as censorship and overblocking, when dealing with hatred online. The core idea is to directly intervene in the discussion with textual responses that are meant to counter the hate content and prevent it from further spreading. Accordingly, automation strategies, such as natural language generation, are beginning to be investigated. Still, they suffer from the lack of sufficient amount of quality data and tend to produce generic/repetitive responses. Being aware of the aforementioned limitations, we present a study on how to collect responses to hate effectively, employing large scale unsupervised language models such as GPT-2 for the generation of silver data, and the best annotation strategies/neural architectures that can be used for data filtering before expert validation/post-editing.

Key facts. Cited by 58 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 8 Apr 2020.

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Citing papers per year: 2021: 9; 2022: 10; 2023: 13; 2024: 18; 2025: 4; 2026: 4.

58 papers.

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  1. 2022WANLI: Worker and AI Collaboration for Natural Language Inference Dataset Creationcited by 200
  2. 2023CoAnnotating: Uncertainty-Guided Work Allocation between Human and Large Language Models for Data Annotationcited by 93
  3. 2021Human-in-the-Loop for Data Collection: a Multi-Target Counter Narrative Dataset to Fight Online Hate Speechcited by 81
  4. 2023Facilitating Fine-grained Detection of Chinese Toxic Language: Hierarchical Taxonomy, Resources, and Benchmarkscited by 45
  5. 2023Evaluating GPT-3 Generated Explanations for Hateful Content Moderationcited by 44
  6. 2021Generate, Prune, Select: A Pipeline for Counterspeech Generation against Online Hate Speechcited by 42
  7. 2021Towards Knowledge-Grounded Counter Narrative Generation for Hate Speechcited by 41
  8. 2022Human-Machine Collaboration Approaches to Build a Dialogue Dataset for Hate Speech Counteringcited by 40
  9. 2023Reinforcement Learning-based Counter-Misinformation Response Generation: A Case Study of COVID-19 Vaccine Misinformationcited by 39
  10. 2022Using Pre-Trained Language Models for Producing Counter Narratives Against Hate Speech: a Comparative Studycited by 30
  11. 2022CounterGeDi: A controllable approach to generate polite, detoxified and emotional counterspeechcited by 28
  12. 2021Understanding and Countering Stereotypes: A Computational Approach to the Stereotype Content Modelcited by 23
38 more
  1. 2024NLP for Counterspeech against Hate: A Survey and How-To Guidecited by 21
  2. 2021Dataset for Identification of Homophobia and Transophobia in Multilingual YouTube Commentscited by 20
  3. 2023Understanding Counterspeech for Online Harm Mitigationcited by 17
  4. 2024On Zero-Shot Counterspeech Generation by LLMscited by 17
  5. 2024Contextualized Counterspeech: Strategies for Adaptation, Personalization, and Evaluationcited by 15
  6. 2021"Short is the Road that Leads from Fear to Hate": Fear Speech in Indian WhatsApp Groupscited by 13
  7. 2021Empowering NGOs in Countering Online Hate Messagescited by 13
  8. 2023Counterspeeches up my sleeve! Intent Distribution Learning and Persistent Fusion for Intent-Conditioned Counterspeech Generationcited by 13
  9. 2021Countering Online Hate Speech: An NLP Perspectivecited by 12
  10. 2024Outcome-Constrained Large Language Models for Countering Hate Speechcited by 12
  11. 2024Is Safer Better? The Impact of Guardrails on the Argumentative Strength of LLMs in Hate Speech Counteringcited by 11
  12. 2023Hate Cannot Drive out Hate: Forecasting Conversation Incivility following Replies to Hate Speechcited by 10
  13. 2024mCSQA: Multilingual Commonsense Reasoning Dataset with Unified Creation Strategy by Language Models and Humanscited by 10
  14. 2021Multilingual Counter Narrative Type Classificationcited by 9
  15. 2023Countering Misinformation via Emotional Response Generationcited by 9
  16. 2022ELF22: A Context-based Counter Trolling Dataset to Combat Internet Trollscited by 7
  17. 2023Weigh Your Own Words: Improving Hate Speech Counter Narrative Generation via Attention Regularizationcited by 7
  18. 2024Basque and Spanish Counter Narrative Generation: Data Creation and Evaluationcited by 7
  19. 2024Hate Speech Detection with Generalizable Target-aware Fairnesscited by 7
  20. 2024Decoding Hate: Exploring Language Models' Reactions to Hate Speechcited by 6
  21. 2022Counter Hate Speech in Social Media: A Surveycited by 5
  22. 2022CRUSH: Contextually Regularized and User anchored Self-supervised Hate speech Detectioncited by 5
  23. 2024Low-Resource Counterspeech Generation for Indic Languages: The Case of Bengali and Hindicited by 5
  24. 2024Face the Facts! Evaluating RAG-based Pipelines for Professional Fact-Checkingcited by 5
  25. 2023The crime of being poorcited by 4
  26. 2023Hate Speech Detection via Dual Contrastive Learningcited by 3
  27. 2024Challenging Negative Gender Stereotypes: A Study on the Effectiveness of Automated Counter-Stereotypescited by 3
  28. 2024Fine-tuning with HED-IT: The impact of human post-editing for dialogical language modelscited by 3
  29. 2024Towards Effective Counter-Responses: Aligning Human Preferences with Strategies to Combat Online Trollingcited by 3
  30. 2022Exploiting Social Media Content for Self-Supervised Style Transfercited by 2
  31. 2022Personalized Interventions for Online Moderationcited by 2
  32. 2022Parsimonious Argument Annotations for Hate Speech Counter-narrativescited by 2
  33. 2023TOT: Topology-Aware Optimal Transport For Multimodal Hate Detectioncited by 2
  34. 2023Choice-75: A Dataset on Decision Branching in Script Learningcited by 2
  35. 2024Consolidating Strategies for Countering Hate Speech Using Persuasive Dialoguescited by 2
  36. 2024"Reasoning" with Rhetoric: On the Style-Evidence Tradeoff in LLM-Generated Counter-Argumentscited by 2
  37. 2025Effectiveness of Counter-Speech against Abusive Content: A Multidimensional Annotation and Classification Studycited by 2
  38. 2025Beating Harmful Stereotypes Through Facts: RAG-based Counter-speech Generationcited by 2

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