mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

Paraphrastic Representations at Scale

arXiv 2104.15114 ↗First posted 30 Apr 2021cs.CLcited by 19

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Abstract (arXiv)

We present a system that allows users to train their own state-of-the-art paraphrastic sentence representations in a variety of languages. We also release trained models for English, Arabic, German, French, Spanish, Russian, Turkish, and Chinese. We train these models on large amounts of data, achieving significantly improved performance from the original papers proposing the methods on a suite of monolingual semantic similarity, cross-lingual semantic similarity, and bitext mining tasks. Moreover, the resulting models surpass all prior work on unsupervised semantic textual similarity, significantly outperforming even BERT-based models like Sentence-BERT (Reimers and Gurevych, 2019). Additionally, our models are orders of magnitude faster than prior work and can be used on CPU with little difference in inference speed (even improved speed over GPU when using more CPU cores), making these models an attractive choice for users without access to GPUs or for use on embedded devices. Finally, we add significantly increased functionality to the code bases for training paraphrastic sentence models, easing their use for both inference and for training them for any desired language with parallel data. We also include code to automatically download and preprocess training data.

Key facts. Cited by 19 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 44 of its 62 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 30 Apr 2021.

Builds on

44 of 62 references.

References · 44

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32 more
  1. 2017SemEval-2017 Task 1: Semantic Textual Similarity - Multilingual and Cross-lingual Focused Evaluationcited by 998
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Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2021: 1; 2022: 2; 2023: 6; 2024: 5; 2025: 3; 2026: 2.

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  1. 2023FActScore: Fine-grained Atomic Evaluation of Factual Precision in Long Form Text Generationcited by 1,259
  2. 2023Paraphrasing evades detectors of AI-generated text, but retrieval is an effective defensecited by 401
  3. 2023On the Reliability of Watermarks for Large Language Modelscited by 170
  4. 2024Watermark Stealing in Large Language Modelscited by 79
  5. 2023Advancing Beyond Identification: Multi-bit Watermark for Large Language Modelscited by 51
  6. 2022English Contrastive Learning Can Learn Universal Cross-lingual Sentence Embeddingscited by 26
  7. 2022Show Me More Details: Discovering Hierarchies of Procedures from Semi-structured Web Datacited by 22
  8. 2024Ward: Provable RAG Dataset Inference via LLM Watermarkscited by 15
  9. 2021VarCLR: Variable Semantic Representation Pre-training via Contrastive Learningcited by 11
  10. 2023A Gold Standard Dataset for the Reviewer Assignment Problemcited by 11
  11. 2025STAMP Your Content: Proving Dataset Membership via Watermarked Rephrasingscited by 8
  12. 2025Enhancing LLM Watermark Resilience Against Both Scrubbing and Spoofing Attackscited by 8
7 more
  1. 2024ESPERANTO: Evaluating Synthesized Phrases to Enhance Robustness in AI Detection for Text Originationcited by 6
  2. 2023ICLEF: In-Context Learning with Expert Feedback for Explainable Style Transfercited by 5
  3. 2025Leave No TRACE: Black-box Detection of Copyrighted Dataset Usage in Large Language Models via Watermarkingcited by 5
  4. 2024Banyan: Improved Representation Learning with Explicit Structurecited by 3
  5. 2024Watermark Smoothing Attacks against Language Modelscited by 0
  6. 2026Bootstrapping Embeddings for Low Resource Languagescited by 0
  7. 2026Learning to Follow In-Context Watermark Instructions via Self-Distillationcited by 0