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Unsupervised Learning of Sentence Embeddings using Compositional n-Gram Features

arXiv 1703.02507 ↗First posted 7 Mar 2017cs.CL cs.AI cs.IRcited by 103

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Abstract (arXiv)

The recent tremendous success of unsupervised word embeddings in a multitude of applications raises the obvious question if similar methods could be derived to improve embeddings (i.e. semantic representations) of word sequences as well. We present a simple but efficient unsupervised objective to train distributed representations of sentences. Our method outperforms the state-of-the-art unsupervised models on most benchmark tasks, highlighting the robustness of the produced general-purpose sentence embeddings.

Key facts. Cited by 103 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 7 Mar 2017.

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Citing papers per year: 2021: 36; 2022: 23; 2023: 20; 2024: 17; 2025: 6; 2026: 1.

103 papers.

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  1. 2021SimCSE: Simple Contrastive Learning of Sentence Embeddingscited by 2,168
  2. 2023MedCPT: Contrastive Pre-trained Transformers with Large-scale PubMed Search Logs for Zero-shot Biomedical Information Retrievalcited by 182
  3. 2021TSDAE: Using Transformer-based Sequential Denoising Auto-Encoder for Unsupervised Sentence Embedding Learningcited by 116
  4. 2023AnglE-optimized Text Embeddingscited by 98
  5. 2022Unsupervised Time-Series Representation Learning with Iterative Bilinear Temporal-Spectral Fusioncited by 96
  6. 2021ILDC for CJPE: Indian Legal Documents Corpus for Court Judgment Prediction and Explanationcited by 78
  7. 2021Elaborative Rehearsal for Zero-shot Action Recognitioncited by 76
  8. 2021ESimCSE: Enhanced Sample Building Method for Contrastive Learning of Unsupervised Sentence Embeddingcited by 73
  9. 2023TimesURL: Self-supervised Contrastive Learning for Universal Time Series Representation Learningcited by 51
  10. 2022N-Gram in Swin Transformers for Efficient Lightweight Image Super-Resolutioncited by 46
  11. 2021Multimodal Entity Linking for Tweetscited by 28
  12. 2022Learn2Augment: Learning to Composite Videos for Data Augmentation in Action Recognitioncited by 27
38 more
  1. 2022InfoCSE: Information-aggregated Contrastive Learning of Sentence Embeddingscited by 25
  2. 2021LeSICiN: A Heterogeneous Graph-based Approach for Automatic Legal Statute Identification from Indian Legal Documentscited by 23
  3. 2021Entity Linking Meets Deep Learning: Techniques and Solutionscited by 21
  4. 2022Norm of Word Embedding Encodes Information Gaincited by 21
  5. 2021MDERank: A Masked Document Embedding Rank Approach for Unsupervised Keyphrase Extractioncited by 20
  6. 2021Abstract, Rationale, Stance: A Joint Model for Scientific Claim Verificationcited by 20
  7. 2021Paraphrastic Representations at Scalecited by 19
  8. 2021MemSum: Extractive Summarization of Long Documents Using Multi-Step Episodic Markov Decision Processescited by 19
  9. 2022PatternRank: Leveraging Pretrained Language Models and Part of Speech for Unsupervised Keyphrase Extractioncited by 19
  10. 2021Obtaining Better Static Word Embeddings Using Contextual Embedding Modelscited by 18
  11. 2021Local Citation Recommendation with Hierarchical-Attention Text Encoder and SciBERT-based Rerankingcited by 18
  12. 2021Unsupervised Keyphrase Extraction by Jointly Modeling Local and Global Contextcited by 17
  13. 2021One-shot action recognition in challenging therapy scenarioscited by 15
  14. 2022Cross-modal Representation Learning for Zero-shot Action Recognitioncited by 15
  15. 2023SimCSE++: Improving Contrastive Learning for Sentence Embeddings from Two Perspectivescited by 15
  16. 2021A New Split for Evaluating True Zero-Shot Action Recognitioncited by 14
  17. 2023From Statistical Methods to Deep Learning, Automatic Keyphrase Prediction: A Surveycited by 14
  18. 2024KDMCSE: Knowledge Distillation Multimodal Sentence Embeddings with Adaptive Angular margin Contrastive Learningcited by 13
  19. 2021CLASTER: Clustering with Reinforcement Learning for Zero-Shot Action Recognitioncited by 12
  20. 2023Language Models are Universal Embedderscited by 11
  21. 2022Non-Linguistic Supervision for Contrastive Learning of Sentence Embeddingscited by 10
  22. 2025Position: Text Embeddings Should Capture Implicit Semantics, Not Just Surface Meaningcited by 10
  23. 2021BERT-Based Sentiment Analysis: A Software Engineering Perspectivecited by 9
  24. 2021Trust It or Not: Confidence-Guided Automatic Radiology Report Generationcited by 9
  25. 2022nigam@COLIEE-22: Legal Case Retrieval and Entailment using Cascading of Lexical and Semantic-based modelscited by 9
  26. 2024A Survey of Malware Detection Using Deep Learningcited by 8
  27. 2021Tell me what you see: A zero-shot action recognition method based on natural language descriptionscited by 7
  28. 2021TagRec: Automated Tagging of Questions with Hierarchical Learning Taxonomycited by 6
  29. 2022Evaluation Benchmarks for Spanish Sentence Representationscited by 6
  30. 2022Holistic Sentence Embeddings for Better Out-of-Distribution Detectioncited by 6
  31. 2022Contrastive Learning with Prompt-derived Virtual Semantic Prototypes for Unsupervised Sentence Embeddingcited by 6
  32. 2021A Hybrid Approach to Measure Semantic Relatedness in Biomedical Conceptscited by 5
  33. 2021PAUSE: Positive and Annealed Unlabeled Sentence Embeddingcited by 5
  34. 2021Simulated annealing for optimization of graphs and sequencescited by 5
  35. 2022Compressing Sentence Representation for Semantic Retrieval via Homomorphic Projective Distillationcited by 5
  36. 2022Generating Multiple-Length Summaries via Reinforcement Learning for Unsupervised Sentence Summarizationcited by 5
  37. 2023SciLit: A Platform for Joint Scientific Literature Discovery, Summarization and Citation Generationcited by 5
  38. 2024Revisiting Cosine Similarity via Normalized ICA-transformed Embeddingscited by 5

50 most cited of 103 All 103 (JSON)