Unsupervised Multi-source Domain Adaptation Without Access to Source Data
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Abstract (arXiv)
Unsupervised Domain Adaptation (UDA) aims to learn a predictor model for an unlabeled domain by transferring knowledge from a separate labeled source domain. However, most of these conventional UDA approaches make the strong assumption of having access to the source data during training, which may not be very practical due to privacy, security and storage concerns. A recent line of work addressed this problem and proposed an algorithm that transfers knowledge to the unlabeled target domain from a single source model without requiring access to the source data. However, for adaptation purposes, if there are multiple trained source models available to choose from, this method has to go through adapting each and every model individually, to check for the best source. Thus, we ask the question: can we find the optimal combination of source models, with no source data and without target labels, whose performance is no worse than the single best source? To answer this, we propose a novel and efficient algorithm which automatically combines the source models with suitable weights in such a way that it performs at least as good as the best source model. We provide intuitive theoretical insights to justify our claim. Furthermore, extensive experiments are conducted on several benchmark datasets to show the effectiveness of our algorithm, where in most cases, our method not only reaches best source accuracy but also outperforms it.
Key facts. Cited by 76 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 31 of its 51 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 5 Apr 2021.
Builds on
31 of 51 references.
References · 31
- 2015Deep Residual Learning for Image Recognitioncited by 51,809
- 2019PyTorch: An Imperative Style, High-Performance Deep Learning Librarycited by 20,160
- 2015Distilling the Knowledge in a Neural Networkcited by 10,076
- 2015Batch Normalization: Accelerating Deep Network Training by Reducing Internal Covariate Shiftcited by 6,979
- 2014Fully Convolutional Networks for Semantic Segmentationcited by 4,845
- 2015You Only Look Once: Unified, Real-Time Object Detectioncited by 4,829
- 2015Domain-Adversarial Training of Neural Networkscited by 3,023
- 2014Unsupervised Domain Adaptation by Backpropagationcited by 1,906
- 2018Moment Matching for Multi-Source Domain Adaptationcited by 1,327
- 2015Learning Transferable Features with Deep Adaptation Networkscited by 1,323
- 2017Adversarial Discriminative Domain Adaptationcited by 1,309
- 2017Deep Hashing Network for Unsupervised Domain Adaptationcited by 1,181
19 more
- 2017CyCADA: Cycle-Consistent Adversarial Domain Adaptationcited by 1,079
- 2018Deep Clustering for Unsupervised Learning of Visual Featurescited by 1,020
- 2019When Does Label Smoothing Help?cited by 985
- 2020Do We Really Need to Access the Source Data? Source Hypothesis Transfer for Unsupervised Domain Adaptationcited by 844
- 2018Panoptic Segmentationcited by 796
- 2017Maximum Classifier Discrepancy for Unsupervised Domain Adaptationcited by 682
- 2016Weight Normalization: A Simple Reparameterization to Accelerate Training of Deep Neural Networkscited by 541
- 2015Return of Frustratingly Easy Domain Adaptationcited by 389
- 2018Taking A Closer Look at Domain Shift: Category-level Adversaries for Semantics Consistent Domain Adaptationcited by 295
- 2019Progressive Domain Adaptation for Object Detectioncited by 134
- 2018Deep Cocktail Network: Multi-source Unsupervised Domain Adaptation with Category Shiftcited by 109
- 2018Multi-Source Domain Adaptation with Mixture of Expertscited by 62
- 2020Domain Adaptive Semantic Segmentation Using Weak Labelscited by 56
- 2018Algorithms and Theory for Multiple-Source Adaptationcited by 53
- 2020Multi-source Domain Adaptation in the Deep Learning Era: A Systematic Surveycited by 47
- 2018Nonparametric Density Estimation under Adversarial Lossescited by 26
- 2020Multi-source Domain Adaptation for Visual Sentiment Classificationcited by 16
- 2020Statistical and Algorithmic Insights for Semi-supervised Learning with Self-trainingcited by 11
- 2020Camera On-boarding for Person Re-identification using Hypothesis Transfer Learningcited by 9
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Citing papers per year: 2021: 12; 2022: 15; 2023: 21; 2024: 19; 2025: 6; 2026: 3.
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- 2023A Comprehensive Survey on Test-Time Adaptation under Distribution Shiftscited by 353
- 2021Generalized Source-free Domain Adaptationcited by 175
- 2023A Comprehensive Survey on Source-free Domain Adaptationcited by 104
- 2022Source-Free Unsupervised Domain Adaptation: A Surveycited by 79
- 2022Balancing Discriminability and Transferability for Source-Free Domain Adaptationcited by 58
- 2021Non-Transferable Learning: A New Approach for Model Ownership Verification and Applicability Authorizationcited by 50
- 2022Meta-DMoE: Adapting to Domain Shift by Meta-Distillation from Mixture-of-Expertscited by 50
- 2023When Source-Free Domain Adaptation Meets Learning with Noisy Labelscited by 46
- 2022BMD: A General Class-balanced Multicentric Dynamic Prototype Strategy for Source-free Domain Adaptationcited by 39
- 2021INTERN: A New Learning Paradigm Towards General Visioncited by 33
- 2021Data-Free Knowledge Transfer: A Surveycited by 31
- 2021Transformer-Based Source-Free Domain Adaptationcited by 30
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- 2024A Comprehensive Survey on Evidential Deep Learning and Its Applicationscited by 25
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- 2024EventDance: Unsupervised Source-free Cross-modal Adaptation for Event-based Object Recognitioncited by 23
- 2022Concurrent Subsidiary Supervision for Unsupervised Source-Free Domain Adaptationcited by 21
- 2024Proxy Denoising for Source-Free Domain Adaptationcited by 20
- 2022Source-Free Domain Adaptation for Real-world Image Dehazingcited by 17
- 2022Cross-Modal Knowledge Transfer Without Task-Relevant Source Datacited by 17
- 2022On Balancing Bias and Variance in Unsupervised Multi-Source-Free Domain Adaptationcited by 16
- 2023Domain-Specificity Inducing Transformers for Source-Free Domain Adaptationcited by 16
- 2023Effective Restoration of Source Knowledge in Continual Test Time Adaptationcited by 15
- 2023MS3D++: Ensemble of Experts for Multi-Source Unsupervised Domain Adaptation in 3D Object Detectioncited by 14
- 2025Learning to Adapt Frozen CLIP for Few-Shot Test-Time Domain Adaptationcited by 14
- 2022Uncertainty-Induced Transferability Representation for Source-Free Unsupervised Domain Adaptationcited by 13
- 2023Prior-guided Source-free Domain Adaptation for Human Pose Estimationcited by 13
- 2024LanDA: Language-Guided Multi-Source Domain Adaptationcited by 13
- 2024Split to Merge: Unifying Separated Modalities for Unsupervised Domain Adaptationcited by 13
- 2021Secure Domain Adaptation with Multiple Sourcescited by 12
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- 2021Towards Data-Free Domain Generalizationcited by 11
- 2021A Curriculum-style Self-training Approach for Source-Free Semantic Segmentationcited by 10
- 2022RAIN: RegulArization on Input and Network for Black-Box Domain Adaptationcited by 9
- 2023Trust your Good Friends: Source-free Domain Adaptation by Reciprocal Neighborhood Clusteringcited by 9
- 2024More is Better: Deep Domain Adaptation with Multiple Sourcescited by 9
- 2021Multi-source Few-shot Domain Adaptationcited by 7
- 2023Multi-Source Test-Time Adaptation as Dueling Bandits for Extractive Question Answeringcited by 6
- 2023H-ensemble: An Information Theoretic Approach to Reliable Few-Shot Multi-Source-Free Transfercited by 6
- 2023SUMMIT: Source-Free Adaptation of Uni-Modal Models to Multi-Modal Targetscited by 5
- 2024Enhancing Test Time Adaptation with Few-shot Guidancecited by 5
- 2022Federated and Generalized Person Re-identification through Domain and Feature Hallucinatingcited by 4
- 2023CoSDA: Continual Source-Free Domain Adaptationcited by 4
- 2024Source-Free Cross-Modal Knowledge Transfer by Unleashing the Potential of Task-Irrelevant Datacited by 4
- 2024Multi-Source and Test-Time Domain Adaptation on Multivariate Signals using Spatio-Temporal Monge Alignmentcited by 4
- 2024Temporal Source Recovery for Time-Series Source-Free Unsupervised Domain Adaptationcited by 4
- 2025Aggregate to Adapt: Node-Centric Aggregation for Multi-Source-Free Graph Domain Adaptationcited by 4
- 2025Unified modality separation: A vision-language framework for unsupervised domain adaptationcited by 4
50 most cited of 76 All 76 (JSON)
- 2026Source-Free Controlled Adaptation of Teachers for Continual Test-Time Adaptation26 Jul 2026
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- 2026Foundation Model Guided Dual-Branch Co-Adaptation for Source-Free EEG Decoding21 Apr 2026
- 2025Unified modality separation: A vision-language framework for unsupervised domain adaptation7 Aug 2025
- 2025Model Recycling Framework for Multi-Source Data-Free Supervised Transfer Learning4 Aug 2025
- 2025Learning to Adapt Frozen CLIP for Few-Shot Test-Time Domain Adaptation18 Jun 2025
- 2025Temporal Restoration and Spatial Rewiring for Source-Free Multivariate Time Series Domain Adaptation23 May 2025
- 2025One-Shot Federated Unsupervised Domain Adaptation with Scaled Entropy Attention and Multi-Source Smoothed Pseudo Labeling13 Mar 2025
- 2025Aggregate to Adapt: Node-Centric Aggregation for Multi-Source-Free Graph Domain Adaptation5 Feb 2025
- 2024Temporal Source Recovery for Time-Series Source-Free Unsupervised Domain Adaptation29 Sep 2024
- 2024A Comprehensive Survey on Evidential Deep Learning and Its Applications7 Sep 2024
- 2024Enhancing Test Time Adaptation with Few-shot Guidance2 Sep 2024
38 more
- 2024Multi-Source and Test-Time Domain Adaptation on Multivariate Signals using Spatio-Temporal Monge Alignment19 Jul 2024
- 2024Domain Generalizable Knowledge Tracing via Concept Aggregation and Relation-Based Attention2 Jul 2024
- 2024Proxy Denoising for Source-Free Domain Adaptation3 Jun 2024
- 2024"Forgetting" in Machine Learning and Beyond: A Survey31 May 2024
- 2024More is Better: Deep Domain Adaptation with Multiple Sources1 May 2024
- 2024EventDance: Unsupervised Source-free Cross-modal Adaptation for Event-based Object Recognition21 Mar 2024
- 2024Split to Merge: Unifying Separated Modalities for Unsupervised Domain Adaptation11 Mar 2024
- 2024Selection, Ensemble, and Adaptation: Advancing Multi-Source-Free Domain Adaptation via Architecture Zoo3 Mar 2024
- 2024Cross-Domain Transfer Learning with CoRTe: Consistent and Reliable Transfer from Black-Box to Lightweight Segmentation Model20 Feb 2024
- 2024SepRep-Net: Multi-source Free Domain Adaptation via Model Separation And Reparameterization13 Feb 2024
- 2024Multi-source-free Domain Adaptation via Uncertainty-aware Adaptive Distillation9 Feb 2024
- 2024CNG-SFDA:Clean-and-Noisy Region Guided Online-Offline Source-Free Domain Adaptation26 Jan 2024
- 2024LanDA: Language-Guided Multi-Source Domain Adaptation25 Jan 2024
- 2024Source-Free Cross-Modal Knowledge Transfer by Unleashing the Potential of Task-Irrelevant Data10 Jan 2024
- 2024Plug-and-Play Transformer Modules for Test-Time Adaptation6 Jan 2024
- 2024CONTRAST: Continual Multi-source Adaptation to Dynamic Distributions4 Jan 2024
- 2023H-ensemble: An Information Theoretic Approach to Reliable Few-Shot Multi-Source-Free Transfer19 Dec 2023
- 2023Effective Restoration of Source Knowledge in Continual Test Time Adaptation8 Nov 2023
- 2023DAD++: Improved Data-free Test Time Adversarial Defense10 Sep 2023
- 2023Trust your Good Friends: Source-free Domain Adaptation by Reciprocal Neighborhood Clustering1 Sep 2023
- 2023Domain-Specificity Inducing Transformers for Source-Free Domain Adaptation27 Aug 2023
- 2023Prior-guided Source-free Domain Adaptation for Human Pose Estimation26 Aug 2023
- 2023SUMMIT: Source-Free Adaptation of Uni-Modal Models to Multi-Modal Targets23 Aug 2023
- 2023MS3D++: Ensemble of Experts for Multi-Source Unsupervised Domain Adaptation in 3D Object Detection11 Aug 2023
- 2023FREEDOM: Target Label & Source Data & Domain Information-Free Multi-Source Domain Adaptation for Unsupervised Personalization4 Jul 2023
- 2023Multi-Source Test-Time Adaptation as Dueling Bandits for Extractive Question Answering11 Jun 2023
- 2023FACT: Federated Adversarial Cross Training1 Jun 2023
- 2023Representation Transfer Learning via Multiple Pre-trained models for Linear Regression25 May 2023
- 2023Model-Contrastive Federated Domain Adaptation7 May 2023
- 2023CoSDA: Continual Source-Free Domain Adaptation13 Apr 2023
- 2023MS3D: Leveraging Multiple Detectors for Unsupervised Domain Adaptation in 3D Object Detection5 Apr 2023
- 2023SFHarmony: Source Free Domain Adaptation for Distributed Neuroimaging Analysis28 Mar 2023
- 2023A Comprehensive Survey on Test-Time Adaptation under Distribution Shifts27 Mar 2023
- 2023AdaptGuard: Defending Against Universal Attacks for Model Adaptation19 Mar 2023
- 2023A Comprehensive Survey on Source-free Domain Adaptation23 Feb 2023
- 2023Contrast and Clustering: Learning Neighborhood Pair Representation for Source-free Domain Adaptation31 Jan 2023
- 2023When Source-Free Domain Adaptation Meets Learning with Noisy Labels31 Jan 2023
- 2022Source-Free Unsupervised Domain Adaptation: A Survey31 Dec 2022
50 newest of 76 All 76 (JSON)
- 2023A Comprehensive Survey on Test-Time Adaptation under Distribution Shiftscited by 353
- 2021Generalized Source-free Domain Adaptationcited by 175
- 2023A Comprehensive Survey on Source-free Domain Adaptationcited by 104
- 2022Source-Free Unsupervised Domain Adaptation: A Surveycited by 79
- 2022Balancing Discriminability and Transferability for Source-Free Domain Adaptationcited by 58
- 2023When Source-Free Domain Adaptation Meets Learning with Noisy Labelscited by 46
- 2022BMD: A General Class-balanced Multicentric Dynamic Prototype Strategy for Source-free Domain Adaptationcited by 39
- 2021INTERN: A New Learning Paradigm Towards General Visioncited by 33
- 2021Data-Free Knowledge Transfer: A Surveycited by 31
- 2021Transformer-Based Source-Free Domain Adaptationcited by 30
- 2021Unsupervised Monocular Depth Estimation in Highly Complex Environmentscited by 28
- 2021Generation, augmentation, and alignment: A pseudo-source domain based method for source-free domain adaptationcited by 28
12 most cited of 73 All 73 (JSON)
- 2026Source-Free Controlled Adaptation of Teachers for Continual Test-Time Adaptation26 Jul 2026
- 2026Unsupervised Collaborative Domain Adaptation for Driving Scene Parsing1 Jun 2026
- 2026Foundation Model Guided Dual-Branch Co-Adaptation for Source-Free EEG Decoding21 Apr 2026
- 2025Unified modality separation: A vision-language framework for unsupervised domain adaptation7 Aug 2025
- 2025Model Recycling Framework for Multi-Source Data-Free Supervised Transfer Learning4 Aug 2025
- 2025Learning to Adapt Frozen CLIP for Few-Shot Test-Time Domain Adaptation18 Jun 2025
- 2025Temporal Restoration and Spatial Rewiring for Source-Free Multivariate Time Series Domain Adaptation23 May 2025
- 2025One-Shot Federated Unsupervised Domain Adaptation with Scaled Entropy Attention and Multi-Source Smoothed Pseudo Labeling13 Mar 2025
- 2025Aggregate to Adapt: Node-Centric Aggregation for Multi-Source-Free Graph Domain Adaptation5 Feb 2025
- 2024Temporal Source Recovery for Time-Series Source-Free Unsupervised Domain Adaptation29 Sep 2024
- 2024A Comprehensive Survey on Evidential Deep Learning and Its Applications7 Sep 2024
- 2024Enhancing Test Time Adaptation with Few-shot Guidance2 Sep 2024
12 newest of 73 All 73 (JSON)