mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

What all do audio transformer models hear? Probing Acoustic Representations for Language Delivery and its Structure

arXiv 2101.00387 ↗First posted 2 Jan 2021cs.CL cs.LG cs.SDcited by 52

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Abstract (arXiv)

In recent times, BERT based transformer models have become an inseparable part of the 'tech stack' of text processing models. Similar progress is being observed in the speech domain with a multitude of models observing state-of-the-art results by using audio transformer models to encode speech. This begs the question of what are these audio transformer models learning. Moreover, although the standard methodology is to choose the last layer embedding for any downstream task, but is it the optimal choice? We try to answer these questions for the two recent audio transformer models, Mockingjay and wave2vec2.0. We compare them on a comprehensive set of language delivery and structure features including audio, fluency and pronunciation features. Additionally, we probe the audio models' understanding of textual surface, syntax, and semantic features and compare them to BERT. We do this over exhaustive settings for native, non-native, synthetic, read and spontaneous speech datasets

Key facts. Cited by 52 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 31 of its 69 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 2 Jan 2021.

Builds on

31 of 69 references.

References · 31

  1. 2017Attention Is All You Needcited by 59,932
  2. 2018BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understandingcited by 40,204
  3. 2020wav2vec 2.0: A Framework for Self-Supervised Learning of Speech Representationscited by 3,853
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  10. 2019vq-wav2vec: Self-Supervised Learning of Discrete Speech Representationscited by 335
  11. 2018Constituency Parsing with a Self-Attentive Encodercited by 196
  12. 2019Mockingjay: Unsupervised Speech Representation Learning with Deep Bidirectional Transformer Encoderscited by 196
19 more
  1. 2017What do Neural Machine Translation Models Learn about Morphology?cited by 165
  2. 2019Learning to Speak Fluently in a Foreign Language: Multilingual Speech Synthesis and Cross-Language Voice Cloningcited by 66
  3. 2020Do Language Embeddings Capture Scales?cited by 63
  4. 2020Audio ALBERT: A Lite BERT for Self-supervised Learning of Audio Representationcited by 58
  5. 2018Robust and fine-grained prosody control of end-to-end speech synthesiscited by 48
  6. 2017Analyzing Hidden Representations in End-to-End Automatic Speech Recognition Systemscited by 31
  7. 2017Learning Word-Like Units from Joint Audio-Visual Analysiscited by 27
  8. 2017Encoding of phonology in a recurrent neural model of grounded speechcited by 27
  9. 2019Synchronous Transformers for End-to-End Speech Recognitioncited by 24
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  11. 2020Self-Supervised Representations Improve End-to-End Speech Translationcited by 21
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  13. 2020Get It Scored Using AutoSAS -- An Automated System for Scoring Short Answerscited by 18
  14. 2019Multimodal music information processing and retrieval: survey and future challengescited by 13
  15. 2020Towards Interpreting BERT for Reading Comprehension Based QAcited by 13
  16. 2017A Tutorial on Deep Learning for Music Information Retrievalcited by 9
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  19. 2018Analyzing Learned Representations of a Deep ASR Performance Prediction Modelcited by 2

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Citing papers per year: 2021: 8; 2022: 16; 2023: 13; 2024: 7; 2025: 8.

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  1. 2021Layer-wise Analysis of a Self-supervised Speech Representation Modelcited by 293
  2. 2022Comparative layer-wise analysis of self-supervised speech modelscited by 155
  3. 2021Neural Analysis and Synthesis: Reconstructing Speech from Self-Supervised Representationscited by 81
  4. 2023What Do Self-Supervised Speech Models Know About Words?cited by 62
  5. 2022On the Utility of Self-supervised Models for Prosody-related Taskscited by 42
  6. 2022Evidence of Vocal Tract Articulation in Self-Supervised Learning of Speechcited by 30
  7. 2022Automatic Pronunciation Assessment using Self-Supervised Speech Representation Learningcited by 29
  8. 2022Deep versus Wide: An Analysis of Student Architectures for Task-Agnostic Knowledge Distillation of Self-Supervised Speech Modelscited by 28
  9. 2023Make-A-Voice: Unified Voice Synthesis With Discrete Representationcited by 27
  10. 2022Proficiency assessment of L2 spoken English using wav2vec 2.0cited by 20
  11. 2024A layer-wise analysis of Mandarin and English suprasegmentals in SSL speech modelscited by 18
  12. 2023SpeechFormer++: A Hierarchical Efficient Framework for Paralinguistic Speech Processingcited by 16
38 more
  1. 2023Vesper: A Compact and Effective Pretrained Model for Speech Emotion Recognitioncited by 16
  2. 2023Self-Supervised Models of Speech Infer Universal Articulatory Kinematicscited by 16
  3. 2021DeToxy: A Large-Scale Multimodal Dataset for Toxicity Classification in Spoken Utterancescited by 13
  4. 2022Probing Speech Emotion Recognition Transformers for Linguistic Knowledgecited by 13
  5. 2023A Sidecar Separator Can Convert a Single-Talker Speech Recognition System to a Multi-Talker Onecited by 13
  6. 2023Homophone Disambiguation Reveals Patterns of Context Mixing in Speech Transformerscited by 13
  7. 2024Exploring the Capabilities of Prompted Large Language Models in Educational and Assessment Applicationscited by 12
  8. 2023Investigating Pre-trained Audio Encoders in the Low-Resource Conditioncited by 11
  9. 2021What do End-to-End Speech Models Learn about Speaker, Language and Channel Information? A Layer-wise and Neuron-level Analysiscited by 9
  10. 2021Speaker-Conditioned Hierarchical Modeling for Automated Speech Scoringcited by 8
  11. 2024SLIM: Style-Linguistics Mismatch Model for Generalized Audio Deepfake Detectioncited by 8
  12. 2021Automated Speech Scoring System Under The Lens: Evaluating and interpreting the linguistic cues for language proficiencycited by 6
  13. 2021AES Systems Are Both Overstable And Oversensitive: Explaining Why And Proposing Defensescited by 5
  14. 2021Using Sampling to Estimate and Improve Performance of Automated Scoring Systems with Guaranteescited by 5
  15. 2022Span Classification with Structured Information for Disfluency Detection in Spoken Utterancescited by 5
  16. 2022End-to-End and Self-Supervised Learning for ComParE 2022 Stuttering Sub-Challengecited by 5
  17. 2025Layer-wise Minimal Pair Probing Reveals Contextual Grammatical-Conceptual Hierarchy in Speech Representationscited by 5
  18. 2022L2 proficiency assessment using self-supervised speech representationscited by 4
  19. 2023Decoding Emotions: A comprehensive Multilingual Study of Speech Models for Speech Emotion Recognitioncited by 4
  20. 2023Reimagining Speech: A Scoping Review of Deep Learning-Powered Voice Conversioncited by 3
  21. 2024ELP-Adapters: Parameter Efficient Adapter Tuning for Various Speech Processing Taskscited by 3
  22. 2025Probing Neural Combinatorial Optimization Modelscited by 3
  23. 2022Analyzing the factors affecting usefulness of Self-Supervised Pre-trained Representations for Speech Recognitioncited by 2
  24. 2023Phone and speaker spatial organization in self-supervised speech representationscited by 2
  25. 2023Do self-supervised speech and language models extract similar representations as human brain?cited by 2
  26. 2024Impact of Speech Mode in Automatic Pathological Speech Detectioncited by 2
  27. 2022COVYT: Introducing the Coronavirus YouTube and TikTok speech dataset featuring the same speakers with and without infectioncited by 1
  28. 2022Probing Statistical Representations For End-To-End ASRcited by 1
  29. 2022Don't Be So Sure! Boosting ASR Decoding via Confidence Relaxationcited by 1
  30. 2023Unsupervised Out-of-Distribution Dialect Detection with Mahalanobis Distancecited by 1
  31. 2024Deep Learning for Assessment of Oral Reading Fluencycited by 1
  32. 2025Normalization through Fine-tuning: Understanding Wav2vec 2.0 Embeddings for Phonetic Analysiscited by 1
  33. 2022The MSXF TTS System for ICASSP 2022 ADD Challengecited by 0
  34. 2022A Comparison of Transformer, Convolutional, and Recurrent Neural Networks on Phoneme Recognitioncited by 0
  35. 2024Investigating large language models for their competence in extracting grammatically sound sentences from transcribed noisy utterancescited by 0
  36. 2025DQ-Data2vec: Decoupling Quantization for Multilingual Speech Recognitioncited by 0
  37. 2025Enhancing and Exploring Mild Cognitive Impairment Detection with W2V-BERT-2.0cited by 0
  38. 2025Towards Smarter Hiring: Are Zero-Shot and Few-Shot Pre-trained LLMs Ready for HR Spoken Interview Transcript Analysis?cited by 0

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