What all do audio transformer models hear? Probing Acoustic Representations for Language Delivery and its Structure
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Abstract (arXiv)
In recent times, BERT based transformer models have become an inseparable part of the 'tech stack' of text processing models. Similar progress is being observed in the speech domain with a multitude of models observing state-of-the-art results by using audio transformer models to encode speech. This begs the question of what are these audio transformer models learning. Moreover, although the standard methodology is to choose the last layer embedding for any downstream task, but is it the optimal choice? We try to answer these questions for the two recent audio transformer models, Mockingjay and wave2vec2.0. We compare them on a comprehensive set of language delivery and structure features including audio, fluency and pronunciation features. Additionally, we probe the audio models' understanding of textual surface, syntax, and semantic features and compare them to BERT. We do this over exhaustive settings for native, non-native, synthetic, read and spontaneous speech datasets
Key facts. Cited by 52 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 31 of its 69 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 2 Jan 2021.
Builds on
31 of 69 references.
References · 31
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19 more
- 2017What do Neural Machine Translation Models Learn about Morphology?cited by 165
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Citing papers per year: 2021: 8; 2022: 16; 2023: 13; 2024: 7; 2025: 8.
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- 2021Layer-wise Analysis of a Self-supervised Speech Representation Modelcited by 293
- 2022Comparative layer-wise analysis of self-supervised speech modelscited by 155
- 2021Neural Analysis and Synthesis: Reconstructing Speech from Self-Supervised Representationscited by 81
- 2023What Do Self-Supervised Speech Models Know About Words?cited by 62
- 2022On the Utility of Self-supervised Models for Prosody-related Taskscited by 42
- 2022Evidence of Vocal Tract Articulation in Self-Supervised Learning of Speechcited by 30
- 2022Automatic Pronunciation Assessment using Self-Supervised Speech Representation Learningcited by 29
- 2022Deep versus Wide: An Analysis of Student Architectures for Task-Agnostic Knowledge Distillation of Self-Supervised Speech Modelscited by 28
- 2023Make-A-Voice: Unified Voice Synthesis With Discrete Representationcited by 27
- 2022Proficiency assessment of L2 spoken English using wav2vec 2.0cited by 20
- 2024A layer-wise analysis of Mandarin and English suprasegmentals in SSL speech modelscited by 18
- 2023SpeechFormer++: A Hierarchical Efficient Framework for Paralinguistic Speech Processingcited by 16
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- 2023Homophone Disambiguation Reveals Patterns of Context Mixing in Speech Transformerscited by 13
- 2024Exploring the Capabilities of Prompted Large Language Models in Educational and Assessment Applicationscited by 12
- 2023Investigating Pre-trained Audio Encoders in the Low-Resource Conditioncited by 11
- 2021What do End-to-End Speech Models Learn about Speaker, Language and Channel Information? A Layer-wise and Neuron-level Analysiscited by 9
- 2021Speaker-Conditioned Hierarchical Modeling for Automated Speech Scoringcited by 8
- 2024SLIM: Style-Linguistics Mismatch Model for Generalized Audio Deepfake Detectioncited by 8
- 2021Automated Speech Scoring System Under The Lens: Evaluating and interpreting the linguistic cues for language proficiencycited by 6
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- 2021Using Sampling to Estimate and Improve Performance of Automated Scoring Systems with Guaranteescited by 5
- 2022Span Classification with Structured Information for Disfluency Detection in Spoken Utterancescited by 5
- 2022End-to-End and Self-Supervised Learning for ComParE 2022 Stuttering Sub-Challengecited by 5
- 2025Layer-wise Minimal Pair Probing Reveals Contextual Grammatical-Conceptual Hierarchy in Speech Representationscited by 5
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- 2023Decoding Emotions: A comprehensive Multilingual Study of Speech Models for Speech Emotion Recognitioncited by 4
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- 2024ELP-Adapters: Parameter Efficient Adapter Tuning for Various Speech Processing Taskscited by 3
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- 2023Phone and speaker spatial organization in self-supervised speech representationscited by 2
- 2023Do self-supervised speech and language models extract similar representations as human brain?cited by 2
- 2024Impact of Speech Mode in Automatic Pathological Speech Detectioncited by 2
- 2022COVYT: Introducing the Coronavirus YouTube and TikTok speech dataset featuring the same speakers with and without infectioncited by 1
- 2022Probing Statistical Representations For End-To-End ASRcited by 1
- 2022Don't Be So Sure! Boosting ASR Decoding via Confidence Relaxationcited by 1
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- 2025Enhancing and Exploring Mild Cognitive Impairment Detection with W2V-BERT-2.0cited by 0
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- 2025Towards Smarter Hiring: Are Zero-Shot and Few-Shot Pre-trained LLMs Ready for HR Spoken Interview Transcript Analysis?8 Apr 2025
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- 2025Enhancing and Exploring Mild Cognitive Impairment Detection with W2V-BERT-2.027 Jan 2025
- 2025DQ-Data2vec: Decoupling Quantization for Multilingual Speech Recognition23 Jan 2025
- 2024Investigating large language models for their competence in extracting grammatically sound sentences from transcribed noisy utterances7 Oct 2024
- 2024A layer-wise analysis of Mandarin and English suprasegmentals in SSL speech models24 Aug 2024
- 2024ELP-Adapters: Parameter Efficient Adapter Tuning for Various Speech Processing Tasks28 Jul 2024
- 2024SLIM: Style-Linguistics Mismatch Model for Generalized Audio Deepfake Detection26 Jul 2024
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- 2024Impact of Speech Mode in Automatic Pathological Speech Detection14 Jun 2024
- 2024Deep Learning for Assessment of Oral Reading Fluency29 May 2024
- 2024Exploring the Capabilities of Prompted Large Language Models in Educational and Assessment Applications19 May 2024
- 2023Reimagining Speech: A Scoping Review of Deep Learning-Powered Voice Conversion14 Nov 2023
- 2023Self-Supervised Models of Speech Infer Universal Articulatory Kinematics16 Oct 2023
- 2023Homophone Disambiguation Reveals Patterns of Context Mixing in Speech Transformers15 Oct 2023
- 2023Do self-supervised speech and language models extract similar representations as human brain?7 Oct 2023
- 2023Decoding Emotions: A comprehensive Multilingual Study of Speech Models for Speech Emotion Recognition17 Aug 2023
- 2023Unsupervised Out-of-Distribution Dialect Detection with Mahalanobis Distance9 Aug 2023
- 2023Vesper: A Compact and Effective Pretrained Model for Speech Emotion Recognition20 Jul 2023
- 2023What Do Self-Supervised Speech Models Know About Words?30 Jun 2023
- 2023Make-A-Voice: Unified Voice Synthesis With Discrete Representation30 May 2023
- 2023Investigating Pre-trained Audio Encoders in the Low-Resource Condition28 May 2023
- 2023SpeechFormer++: A Hierarchical Efficient Framework for Paralinguistic Speech Processing27 Feb 2023
- 2023Phone and speaker spatial organization in self-supervised speech representations24 Feb 2023
- 2023A Sidecar Separator Can Convert a Single-Talker Speech Recognition System to a Multi-Talker One20 Feb 2023
- 2022Don't Be So Sure! Boosting ASR Decoding via Confidence Relaxation27 Dec 2022
- 2022L2 proficiency assessment using self-supervised speech representations16 Nov 2022
- 2022Comparative layer-wise analysis of self-supervised speech models8 Nov 2022
- 2022Probing Statistical Representations For End-To-End ASR3 Nov 2022
- 2022Proficiency assessment of L2 spoken English using wav2vec 2.024 Oct 2022
- 2022Evidence of Vocal Tract Articulation in Self-Supervised Learning of Speech21 Oct 2022
- 2022On the Utility of Self-supervised Models for Prosody-related Tasks13 Oct 2022
- 2022A Comparison of Transformer, Convolutional, and Recurrent Neural Networks on Phoneme Recognition1 Oct 2022
- 2022End-to-End and Self-Supervised Learning for ComParE 2022 Stuttering Sub-Challenge20 Jul 2022
- 2022Deep versus Wide: An Analysis of Student Architectures for Task-Agnostic Knowledge Distillation of Self-Supervised Speech Models14 Jul 2022
- 2022COVYT: Introducing the Coronavirus YouTube and TikTok speech dataset featuring the same speakers with and without infection20 Jun 2022
- 2022Automatic Pronunciation Assessment using Self-Supervised Speech Representation Learning8 Apr 2022
- 2022Probing Speech Emotion Recognition Transformers for Linguistic Knowledge1 Apr 2022
- 2022Analyzing the factors affecting usefulness of Self-Supervised Pre-trained Representations for Speech Recognition31 Mar 2022
- 2022Span Classification with Structured Information for Disfluency Detection in Spoken Utterances30 Mar 2022
- 2022The MSXF TTS System for ICASSP 2022 ADD Challenge27 Jan 2022
- 2021Automated Speech Scoring System Under The Lens: Evaluating and interpreting the linguistic cues for language proficiency30 Nov 2021
- 2021Using Sampling to Estimate and Improve Performance of Automated Scoring Systems with Guarantees17 Nov 2021
- 2021Neural Analysis and Synthesis: Reconstructing Speech from Self-Supervised Representations27 Oct 2021
- 2021DeToxy: A Large-Scale Multimodal Dataset for Toxicity Classification in Spoken Utterances14 Oct 2021
- 2021AES Systems Are Both Overstable And Oversensitive: Explaining Why And Proposing Defenses24 Sep 2021
- 2021Speaker-Conditioned Hierarchical Modeling for Automated Speech Scoring30 Aug 2021
50 newest of 52 All 52 (JSON)
- 2021Layer-wise Analysis of a Self-supervised Speech Representation Modelcited by 293
- 2022Comparative layer-wise analysis of self-supervised speech modelscited by 155
- 2021Neural Analysis and Synthesis: Reconstructing Speech from Self-Supervised Representationscited by 81
- 2023What Do Self-Supervised Speech Models Know About Words?cited by 62
- 2022On the Utility of Self-supervised Models for Prosody-related Taskscited by 42
- 2022Evidence of Vocal Tract Articulation in Self-Supervised Learning of Speechcited by 30
- 2022Automatic Pronunciation Assessment using Self-Supervised Speech Representation Learningcited by 29
- 2022Deep versus Wide: An Analysis of Student Architectures for Task-Agnostic Knowledge Distillation of Self-Supervised Speech Modelscited by 28
- 2023Make-A-Voice: Unified Voice Synthesis With Discrete Representationcited by 27
- 2022Proficiency assessment of L2 spoken English using wav2vec 2.0cited by 20
- 2024A layer-wise analysis of Mandarin and English suprasegmentals in SSL speech modelscited by 18
- 2023SpeechFormer++: A Hierarchical Efficient Framework for Paralinguistic Speech Processingcited by 16
12 most cited of 52 All 52 (JSON)
- 2025Probing Neural Combinatorial Optimization Models25 Oct 2025
- 2025Toward a Realistic Encoding Model of Auditory Affective Understanding in the Brain23 Sep 2025
- 2025Layer-wise Minimal Pair Probing Reveals Contextual Grammatical-Conceptual Hierarchy in Speech Representations19 Sep 2025
- 2025Exploring How Audio Effects Alter Emotion with Foundation Models18 Sep 2025
- 2025Towards Smarter Hiring: Are Zero-Shot and Few-Shot Pre-trained LLMs Ready for HR Spoken Interview Transcript Analysis?8 Apr 2025
- 2025Normalization through Fine-tuning: Understanding Wav2vec 2.0 Embeddings for Phonetic Analysis4 Mar 2025
- 2025Enhancing and Exploring Mild Cognitive Impairment Detection with W2V-BERT-2.027 Jan 2025
- 2025DQ-Data2vec: Decoupling Quantization for Multilingual Speech Recognition23 Jan 2025
- 2024Investigating large language models for their competence in extracting grammatically sound sentences from transcribed noisy utterances7 Oct 2024
- 2024A layer-wise analysis of Mandarin and English suprasegmentals in SSL speech models24 Aug 2024
- 2024ELP-Adapters: Parameter Efficient Adapter Tuning for Various Speech Processing Tasks28 Jul 2024
- 2024SLIM: Style-Linguistics Mismatch Model for Generalized Audio Deepfake Detection26 Jul 2024
12 newest of 52 All 52 (JSON)