mlsanityData to 14 Oct 2026

XOR QA: Cross-lingual Open-Retrieval Question Answering

arXiv 2010.11856 ↗First posted 22 Oct 2020cs.CLcited by 121

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Abstract (arXiv)

Multilingual question answering tasks typically assume answers exist in the same language as the question. Yet in practice, many languages face both information scarcity -- where languages have few reference articles -- and information asymmetry -- where questions reference concepts from other cultures. This work extends open-retrieval question answering to a cross-lingual setting enabling questions from one language to be answered via answer content from another language. We construct a large-scale dataset built on questions from TyDi QA lacking same-language answers. Our task formulation, called Cross-lingual Open Retrieval Question Answering (XOR QA), includes 40k information-seeking questions from across 7 diverse non-English languages. Based on this dataset, we introduce three new tasks that involve cross-lingual document retrieval using multi-lingual and English resources. We establish baselines with state-of-the-art machine translation systems and cross-lingual pretrained models. Experimental results suggest that XOR QA is a challenging task that will facilitate the development of novel techniques for multilingual question answering. Our data and code are available at https://nlp.cs.washington.edu/xorqa.

Key facts. Cited by 121 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 22 Oct 2020.

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Citing papers per year: 2021: 10; 2022: 30; 2023: 21; 2024: 23; 2025: 25; 2026: 12.

121 papers.

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  1. 2025Gemma 3 Technical Reportcited by 1,824
  2. 2021BEIR: A Heterogenous Benchmark for Zero-shot Evaluation of Information Retrieval Modelscited by 1,252
  3. 2022MTEB: Massive Text Embedding Benchmarkcited by 640
  4. 2022RealTime QA: What's the Answer Right Now?cited by 244
  5. 2025EmbeddingGemma: Powerful and Lightweight Text Representationscited by 139
  6. 2021Mr. TyDi: A Multi-lingual Benchmark for Dense Retrievalcited by 119
  7. 2022State-of-the-art generalisation research in NLP: A taxonomy and reviewcited by 98
  8. 2025Gemini Embedding: Generalizable Embeddings from Geminicited by 94
  9. 2021QA Dataset Explosion: A Taxonomy of NLP Resources for Question Answering and Reading Comprehensioncited by 91
  10. 2023BUFFET: Benchmarking Large Language Models for Few-shot Cross-lingual Transfercited by 68
  11. 2023Evaluating GPT-4 and ChatGPT on Japanese Medical Licensing Examinationscited by 63
  12. 2023HAGRID: A Human-LLM Collaborative Dataset for Generative Information-Seeking with Attributioncited by 56
38 more
  1. 2024IndicGenBench: A Multilingual Benchmark to Evaluate Generation Capabilities of LLMs on Indic Languagescited by 56
  2. 2022Bridging the Gap Between Indexing and Retrieval for Differentiable Search Index with Query Generationcited by 48
  3. 2023How Does Generative Retrieval Scale to Millions of Passages?cited by 48
  4. 2022Tevatron: An Efficient and Flexible Toolkit for Dense Retrievalcited by 47
  5. 2022Questions Are All You Need to Train a Dense Passage Retrievercited by 47
  6. 2022Making a MIRACL: Multilingual Information Retrieval Across a Continuum of Languagescited by 47
  7. 2021One Question Answering Model for Many Languages with Cross-lingual Dense Passage Retrievalcited by 46
  8. 2024AutoBencher: Towards Declarative Benchmark Constructioncited by 44
  9. 2022Nonparametric Masked Language Modelingcited by 40
  10. 2021SD-QA: Spoken Dialectal Question Answering for the Real Worldcited by 38
  11. 2023XTREME-UP: A User-Centric Scarce-Data Benchmark for Under-Represented Languagescited by 34
  12. 2022XRICL: Cross-lingual Retrieval-Augmented In-Context Learning for Cross-lingual Text-to-SQL Semantic Parsingcited by 33
  13. 2024BERGEN: A Benchmarking Library for Retrieval-Augmented Generationcited by 31
  14. 2025ECLeKTic: a Novel Challenge Set for Evaluation of Cross-Lingual Knowledge Transfercited by 29
  15. 2024Retrieval-augmented generation in multilingual settingscited by 27
  16. 2022Towards Best Practices for Training Multilingual Dense Retrieval Modelscited by 26
  17. 2022English Contrastive Learning Can Learn Universal Cross-lingual Sentence Embeddingscited by 26
  18. 2022Beyond Counting Datasets: A Survey of Multilingual Dataset Construction and Necessary Resourcescited by 25
  19. 2023Leveraging LLMs for Synthesizing Training Data Across Many Languages in Multilingual Dense Retrievalcited by 24
  20. 2024INDIC QA BENCHMARK: A Multilingual Benchmark to Evaluate Question Answering capability of LLMs for Indic Languagescited by 24
  21. 2023AfriQA: Cross-lingual Open-Retrieval Question Answering for African Languagescited by 23
  22. 2024Translate-Distill: Learning Cross-Language Dense Retrieval by Translation and Distillationcited by 22
  23. 2023Evaluating and Modeling Attribution for Cross-Lingual Question Answeringcited by 21
  24. 2023A Material Lens on Coloniality in NLPcited by 21
  25. 2022WeLM: A Well-Read Pre-trained Language Model for Chinesecited by 19
  26. 2022Parameter-Efficient Neural Reranking for Cross-Lingual and Multilingual Retrievalcited by 17
  27. 2021Learning Cross-Lingual IR from an English Retrievercited by 16
  28. 2022DuReader_retrieval: A Large-scale Chinese Benchmark for Passage Retrieval from Web Search Enginecited by 15
  29. 2025FreshStack: Building Realistic Benchmarks for Evaluating Retrieval on Technical Documentscited by 15
  30. 2022Representation Learning for Resource-Constrained Keyphrase Generationcited by 14
  31. 2022CONCRETE: Improving Cross-lingual Fact-checking with Cross-lingual Retrievalcited by 14
  32. 2024Multilingual Retrieval Augmented Generation for Culturally-Sensitive Tasks: A Benchmark for Cross-lingual Robustnesscited by 14
  33. 2025Multilingual Retrieval-Augmented Generation for Knowledge-Intensive Taskcited by 12
  34. 2022MIA 2022 Shared Task: Evaluating Cross-lingual Open-Retrieval Question Answering for 16 Diverse Languagescited by 11
  35. 2023PAXQA: Generating Cross-lingual Question Answering Examples at Training Scalecited by 10
  36. 2023xPQA: Cross-Lingual Product Question Answering across 12 Languagescited by 10
  37. 2024Swan and ArabicMTEB: Dialect-Aware, Arabic-Centric, Cross-Lingual, and Cross-Cultural Embedding Models and Benchmarkscited by 10
  38. 2023MegaWika: Millions of reports and their sources across 50 diverse languagescited by 9

50 most cited of 121 All 121 (JSON)