mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

SOLID: A Large-Scale Semi-Supervised Dataset for Offensive Language Identification

arXiv 2004.14454 ↗First posted 29 Apr 2020cs.CLcited by 53

Not on the map. Why?

Abstract (arXiv)

The widespread use of offensive content in social media has led to an abundance of research in detecting language such as hate speech, cyberbullying, and cyber-aggression. Recent work presented the OLID dataset, which follows a taxonomy for offensive language identification that provides meaningful information for understanding the type and the target of offensive messages. However, it is limited in size and it might be biased towards offensive language as it was collected using keywords. In this work, we present SOLID, an expanded dataset, where the tweets were collected in a more principled manner. SOLID contains over nine million English tweets labeled in a semi-supervised fashion. We demonstrate that using SOLID along with OLID yields sizable performance gains on the OLID test set for two different models, especially for the lower levels of the taxonomy.

Key facts. Cited by 53 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 29 Apr 2020.

Builds on

No reference list yet.

Built on by

Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2021: 9; 2022: 12; 2023: 12; 2024: 11; 2025: 7; 2026: 2.

53 papers.

Sort:

By area:

  1. 2024WildGuard: Open One-Stop Moderation Tools for Safety Risks, Jailbreaks, and Refusals of LLMscited by 460
  2. 2022A Holistic Approach to Undesired Content Detection in the Real Worldcited by 337
  3. 2024CultureLLM: Incorporating Cultural Differences into Large Language Modelscited by 49
  4. 2021Detecting Harmful Content On Online Platforms: What Platforms Need Vs. Where Research Efforts Gocited by 32
  5. 2021MUDES: Multilingual Detection of Offensive Spanscited by 30
  6. 2021FBERT: A Neural Transformer for Identifying Offensive Contentcited by 30
  7. 2021Cross-lingual Offensive Language Identification for Low Resource Languages: The Case of Marathicited by 28
  8. 2024Position: Measure Dataset Diversity, Don't Just Claim Itcited by 26
  9. 2024Arena Learning: Build Data Flywheel for LLMs Post-training via Simulated Chatbot Arenacited by 26
  10. 2021Multilingual Offensive Language Identification for Low-resource Languagescited by 22
  11. 2021Few-shot Instruction Prompts for Pretrained Language Models to Detect Social Biasescited by 21
  12. 2026A Coin Flip for Safety: LLM Judges Fail to Reliably Measure Adversarial Robustnesscited by 20
38 more
  1. 2022Overview of the WANLP 2022 Shared Task on Propaganda Detection in Arabiccited by 18
  2. 2021Overview of the HASOC Subtrack at FIRE 2021: Hate Speech and Offensive Content Identification in English and Indo-Aryan Languagescited by 17
  3. 2022KOLD: Korean Offensive Language Datasetcited by 14
  4. 2023Towards Safer Generative Language Models: A Survey on Safety Risks, Evaluations, and Improvementscited by 14
  5. 2023SQuARe: A Large-Scale Dataset of Sensitive Questions and Acceptable Responses Created Through Human-Machine Collaborationcited by 13
  6. 2023A Benchmark for Understanding Dialogue Safety in Mental Health Supportcited by 13
  7. 2025From Surveys to Narratives: Rethinking Cultural Value Adaptation in LLMscited by 9
  8. 2024An Auditing Test To Detect Behavioral Shift in Language Modelscited by 8
  9. 2022Hidden behind the obvious: misleading keywords and implicitly abusive language on social mediacited by 6
  10. 2022Cyberbullying Classifiers are Sensitive to Model-Agnostic Perturbationscited by 5
  11. 2022BLUE at Memotion 2.0 2022: You have my Image, my Text and my Transformercited by 5
  12. 2022Predicting the Type and Target of Offensive Social Media Posts in Marathicited by 5
  13. 2023Wisdom of Instruction-Tuned Language Model Crowds. Exploring Model Label Variationcited by 5
  14. 2023OffMix-3L: A Novel Code-Mixed Dataset in Bangla-English-Hindi for Offensive Language Identificationcited by 5
  15. 2024Guardians of Discourse: Evaluating LLMs on Multilingual Offensive Language Detectioncited by 5
  16. 2022Spread Love Not Hate: Undermining the Importance of Hateful Pre-training for Hate Speech Detectioncited by 4
  17. 2023Mixed-Distil-BERT: Code-mixed Language Modeling for Bangla, English, and Hindicited by 4
  18. 2023Muted: Multilingual Targeted Offensive Speech Identification and Visualizationcited by 4
  19. 2024A Federated Learning Approach to Privacy Preserving Offensive Language Identificationcited by 4
  20. 2025Towards Safer AI Moderation: Evaluating LLM Moderators Through a Unified Benchmark Dataset and Advocating a Human-First Approachcited by 4
  21. 2021A Neighbourhood Framework for Resource-Lean Content Flaggingcited by 3
  22. 2023LLMs and Finetuning: Benchmarking cross-domain performance for hate speech detectioncited by 3
  23. 2023A Text-to-Text Model for Multilingual Offensive Language Identificationcited by 3
  24. 2024Cloaked Classifiers: Pseudonymization Strategies on Sensitive Classification Taskscited by 3
  25. 2022Detecting the Role of an Entity in Harmful Memes: Techniques and Their Limitationscited by 2
  26. 2022Zero-shot Visual Commonsense Immorality Predictioncited by 2
  27. 2022SOLD: Sinhala Offensive Language Datasetcited by 2
  28. 2023The Uli Dataset: An Exercise in Experience Led Annotation of oGBVcited by 2
  29. 2022Beyond Plain Toxic: Detection of Inappropriate Statements on Flammable Topics for the Russian Languagecited by 1
  30. 2023Beyond Toxic: Toxicity Detection Datasets are Not Enough for Brand Safetycited by 1
  31. 2024HarmPot: An Annotation Framework for Evaluating Offline Harm Potential of Social Media Textcited by 1
  32. 2024COT: A Generative Approach for Hate Speech Counter-Narratives via Contrastive Optimal Transportcited by 1
  33. 2021Neural Models for Offensive Language Detectioncited by 0
  34. 2023Developing Linguistic Patterns to Mitigate Inherent Human Bias in Offensive Language Detectioncited by 0
  35. 2024OPSD: an Offensive Persian Social media Dataset and its baseline evaluationscited by 0
  36. 2025Sentiment Analysis in SemEval: A Review of Sentiment Identification Approachescited by 0
  37. 2025Delving into Multilingual Ethical Bias: The MSQAD with Statistical Hypothesis Tests for Large Language Modelscited by 0
  38. 2025From Ground Trust to Truth: Disparities in Offensive Language Judgments on Contemporary Korean Political Discoursecited by 0

50 most cited of 53 All 53 (JSON)