mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

Simulation-based reinforcement learning for real-world autonomous driving

arXiv 1911.12905 ↗First posted 29 Nov 2019cs.LG cs.AI cs.ROcited by 51

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Cited by 25 in End-to-end autonomous driving, but placed by its own abstract, which didn’t fit.

Abstract (arXiv)

We use reinforcement learning in simulation to obtain a driving system controlling a full-size real-world vehicle. The driving policy takes RGB images from a single camera and their semantic segmentation as input. We use mostly synthetic data, with labelled real-world data appearing only in the training of the segmentation network. Using reinforcement learning in simulation and synthetic data is motivated by lowering costs and engineering effort. In real-world experiments we confirm that we achieved successful sim-to-real policy transfer. Based on the extensive evaluation, we analyze how design decisions about perception, control, and training impact the real-world performance.

Key facts. Cited by 51 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 29 Nov 2019.

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Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2021: 10; 2022: 7; 2023: 13; 2024: 9; 2025: 9; 2026: 3.

51 papers.

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  1. 2021NuPlan: A closed-loop ML-based planning benchmark for autonomous vehiclescited by 485
  2. 2023End-to-end Autonomous Driving: Challenges and Frontierscited by 485
  3. 2023Waymax: An Accelerated, Data-Driven Simulator for Large-Scale Autonomous Driving Researchcited by 158
  4. 2021Urban Driver: Learning to Drive from Real-world Demonstrations Using Policy Gradientscited by 122
  5. 2023Recent Advancements in End-to-End Autonomous Driving using Deep Learning: A Surveycited by 101
  6. 2025WebSailor-V2: Bridging the Chasm to Proprietary Agents via Synthetic Data and Scalable Reinforcement Learningcited by 59
  7. 2023GINA-3D: Learning to Generate Implicit Neural Assets in the Wildcited by 25
  8. 2024Cross-Domain Policy Adaptation by Capturing Representation Mismatchcited by 24
  9. 2023A Survey on Physics Informed Reinforcement Learning: Review and Open Problemscited by 22
  10. 2022CADRE: A Cascade Deep Reinforcement Learning Framework for Vision-based Autonomous Urban Drivingcited by 16
  11. 2022An Introduction to Multi-Agent Reinforcement Learning and Review of its Application to Autonomous Mobilitycited by 16
  12. 2021Optimal Uniform OPE and Model-based Offline Reinforcement Learning in Time-Homogeneous, Reward-Free and Task-Agnostic Settingscited by 14
38 more
  1. 2023Replay across Experiments: A Natural Extension of Off-Policy RLcited by 10
  2. 2022Sim-to-Real via Sim-to-Seg: End-to-end Off-road Autonomous Driving Without Real Datacited by 9
  3. 2026BridgeSim: Unveiling the OL-CL Gap in End-to-End Autonomous Drivingcited by 9
  4. 2023Designing Long-term Group Fair Policies in Dynamical Systemscited by 8
  5. 2024Generating and Evolving Reward Functions for Highway Driving with Large Language Modelscited by 8
  6. 2022LiDAR-as-Camera for End-to-End Drivingcited by 7
  7. 2024Autonomous Driving at Unsignalized Intersections: A Review of Decision-Making Challenges and Reinforcement Learning-Based Solutionscited by 7
  8. 2023Risk-Aware Reward Shaping of Reinforcement Learning Agents for Autonomous Drivingcited by 6
  9. 2023ContainerGym: A Real-World Reinforcement Learning Benchmark for Resource Allocationcited by 6
  10. 2024TorchDriveEnv: A Reinforcement Learning Benchmark for Autonomous Driving with Reactive, Realistic, and Diverse Non-Playable Characterscited by 6
  11. 2024Regression for the Mean: Auto-Evaluation and Inference with Few Labels through Post-hoc Regressioncited by 6
  12. 2021A Versatile and Efficient Reinforcement Learning Framework for Autonomous Drivingcited by 5
  13. 2024Hierarchical End-to-End Autonomous Driving: Integrating BEV Perception with Deep Reinforcement Learningcited by 5
  14. 2023LEyes: A Lightweight Framework for Deep Learning-Based Eye Tracking using Synthetic Eye Imagescited by 4
  15. 2025SafePath: Conformal Prediction for Safe LLM-Based Autonomous Navigationcited by 4
  16. 2026Scaling Self-Play for End-to-End Drivingcited by 4
  17. 2021ARC: Adversarially Robust Control Policies for Autonomous Vehiclescited by 3
  18. 2021Evaluating the Robustness of Deep Reinforcement Learning for Autonomous Policies in a Multi-agent Urban Driving Environmentcited by 2
  19. 2022On the Choice of Data for Efficient Training and Validation of End-to-End Driving Modelscited by 2
  20. 2022Driver Dojo: A Benchmark for Generalizable Reinforcement Learning for Autonomous Drivingcited by 2
  21. 2023Soft Actor-Critic Algorithm with Truly-satisfied Inequality Constraintcited by 2
  22. 2023Combating the effects of speed and delays in end-to-end self-drivingcited by 2
  23. 2021Evaluating the progress of Deep Reinforcement Learning in the real world: aligning domain-agnostic and domain-specific researchcited by 1
  24. 2021Hierarchical Policy for Non-prehensile Multi-object Rearrangement with Deep Reinforcement Learning and Monte Carlo Tree Searchcited by 1
  25. 2024Transfer Learning for a Class of Cascade Dynamical Systemscited by 1
  26. 2024Traffic Co-Simulation Framework Empowered by Infrastructure Camera Sensing and Reinforcement Learningcited by 1
  27. 2025ME3-BEV: Mamba-Enhanced Deep Reinforcement Learning for End-to-End Autonomous Driving with BEV-Perceptioncited by 1
  28. 2025Dynamics-Decoupled Trajectory Alignment for Sim-to-Real Transfer in Reinforcement Learning for Autonomous Drivingcited by 1
  29. 2025Advancing Autonomous Driving System Testing: Demands, Challenges, and Future Directionscited by 1
  30. 2025A Review of Learning-Based Motion Planning: Toward a Data-Driven Optimal Control Approachcited by 1
  31. 2021Patient level simulation and reinforcement learning to discover novel strategies for treating ovarian cancercited by 0
  32. 2021An Embarrassingly Pragmatic Introduction to Vision-based Autonomous Robotscited by 0
  33. 2022Data-Driven Evaluation of Training Action Space for Reinforcement Learningcited by 0
  34. 2023SSIL: Self-Supervised Imitation Learning for End-to-End Drivingcited by 0
  35. 2024The Indoor-Training Effect: unexpected gains from distribution shifts in the transition functioncited by 0
  36. 2025Sustainable Smart Farm Networks: Enhancing Resilience and Efficiency with Decision Theory-Guided Deep Reinforcement Learningcited by 0
  37. 2025PRATA: A Framework to Enable Predictive QoS in Vehicular Networks via Artificial Intelligencecited by 0
  38. 2025Real-Time Model Checking for Closed-Loop Robot Reactive Planningcited by 0

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