mlsanityData to 14 Oct 2026

Towards Building Multilingual Language Model for Medicine

arXiv 2402.13963 ↗First posted 21 Feb 2024cs.CLcited by 92

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Abstract (arXiv)

The development of open-source, multilingual medical language models can benefit a wide, linguistically diverse audience from different regions. To promote this domain, we present contributions from the following: First, we construct a multilingual medical corpus, containing approximately 25.5B tokens encompassing 6 main languages, termed as MMedC, enabling auto-regressive domain adaptation for general LLMs; Second, to monitor the development of multilingual medical LLMs, we propose a multilingual medical multi-choice question-answering benchmark with rationale, termed as MMedBench; Third, we have assessed a number of open-source large language models (LLMs) on our benchmark, along with those further auto-regressive trained on MMedC. Our final model, MMed-Llama 3, with only 8B parameters, achieves superior performance compared to all other open-source models on both MMedBench and English benchmarks, even rivaling GPT-4. In conclusion, in this work, we present a large-scale corpus, a benchmark and a series of models to support the development of multilingual medical LLMs.

Key facts. Cited by 92 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026). Builds on 38 of its 56 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 21 Feb 2024.

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38 of 56 references.

References · 38

  1. 2020Language Models are Few-Shot Learnerscited by 32,419
  2. 2023GPT-4 Technical Reportcited by 18,396
  3. 2021LoRA: Low-Rank Adaptation of Large Language Modelscited by 14,380
  4. 2023LLaMA: Open and Efficient Foundation Language Modelscited by 14,132
  5. 2020Retrieval-Augmented Generation for Knowledge-Intensive NLP Taskscited by 9,297
  6. 2023Judging LLM-as-a-Judge with MT-Bench and Chatbot Arenacited by 8,626
  7. 2020Measuring Massive Multitask Language Understandingcited by 7,963
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26 more
  1. 2022BLOOM: A 176B-Parameter Open-Access Multilingual Language Modelcited by 1,984
  2. 2022Large Language Models Encode Clinical Knowledgecited by 1,830
  3. 2020What Disease does this Patient Have? A Large-scale Open Domain Question Answering Dataset from Medical Examscited by 1,356
  4. 2019PubMedQA: A Dataset for Biomedical Research Question Answeringcited by 1,288
  5. 2023PaLM 2 Technical Reportcited by 1,162
  6. 2022Super-NaturalInstructions: Generalization via Declarative Instructions on 1600+ NLP Taskscited by 868
  7. 2023The Flan Collection: Designing Data and Methods for Effective Instruction Tuningcited by 739
  8. 2022MedMCQA : A Large-scale Multi-Subject Multi-Choice Dataset for Medical domain Question Answeringcited by 543
  9. 2023Med-Flamingo: a Multimodal Medical Few-shot Learnercited by 392
  10. 2023Towards Expert-Level Medical Question Answering with Large Language Modelscited by 384
  11. 2023Can Generalist Foundation Models Outcompete Special-Purpose Tuning? Case Study in Medicinecited by 329
  12. 2023ChatDoctor: A Medical Chat Model Fine-Tuned on a Large Language Model Meta-AI (LLaMA) Using Medical Domain Knowledgecited by 325
  13. 2024BioMistral: A Collection of Open-Source Pretrained Large Language Models for Medical Domainscited by 301
  14. 2023Towards Generalist Biomedical AIcited by 289
  15. 2023MedAlpaca -- An Open-Source Collection of Medical Conversational AI Models and Training Datacited by 286
  16. 2023MEDITRON-70B: Scaling Medical Pretraining for Large Language Modelscited by 274
  17. 2023Towards Generalist Foundation Model for Radiology by Leveraging Web-scale 2D&3D Medical Datacited by 179
  18. 2023CulturaX: A Cleaned, Enormous, and Multilingual Dataset for Large Language Models in 167 Languagescited by 174
  19. 2023Almanac: Retrieval-Augmented Language Models for Clinical Medicinecited by 123
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  22. 2023A Multi-Task Embedder For Retrieval Augmented LLMscited by 64
  23. 2023Evaluating GPT-4 and ChatGPT on Japanese Medical Licensing Examinationscited by 63
  24. 2023LMFlow: An Extensible Toolkit for Finetuning and Inference of Large Foundation Modelscited by 60
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  26. 2022RuMedBench: A Russian Medical Language Understanding Benchmarkcited by 10

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Cited by year (2026 to 14 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2024: 25; 2025: 39; 2026: 28.

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  1. 2025MedReason: Eliciting Factual Medical Reasoning Steps in LLMs via Knowledge Graphscited by 110
  2. 2024A Comprehensive Survey of Scientific Large Language Models and Their Applications in Scientific Discoverycited by 96
  3. 2024RaTEScore: A Metric for Radiology Report Generationcited by 65
  4. 2025MedHELM: Holistic Evaluation of Large Language Models for Medical Taskscited by 64
  5. 2025m1: Unleash the Potential of Test-Time Scaling for Medical Reasoning with Large Language Modelscited by 46
  6. 2024Towards Evaluating and Building Versatile Large Language Models for Medicinecited by 40
  7. 2024Apollo: A Lightweight Multilingual Medical LLM towards Democratizing Medical AI to 6B Peoplecited by 38
  8. 2025O1 Replication Journey -- Part 3: Inference-time Scaling for Medical Reasoningcited by 35
  9. 2024ClinicalLab: Aligning Agents for Multi-Departmental Clinical Diagnostics in the Real Worldcited by 28
  10. 2025MEDDxAgent: A Unified Modular Agent Framework for Explainable Automatic Differential Diagnosiscited by 23
  11. 2024Aloe: A Family of Fine-tuned Open Healthcare LLMscited by 20
  12. 2024Medchain: Bridging the Gap Between LLM Agents and Clinical Practice with Interactive Sequencecited by 17
38 more
  1. 2024A Survey on Large Language Models from General Purpose to Medical Applications: Datasets, Methodologies, and Evaluationscited by 16
  2. 2025MedArabiQ: Benchmarking Large Language Models on Arabic Medical Taskscited by 15
  3. 2025Multimodal Medical Code Tokenizercited by 14
  4. 2024Graphusion: A RAG Framework for Knowledge Graph Construction with a Global Perspectivecited by 12
  5. 2025BRIDGE: Benchmarking Large Language Models for Understanding Real-world Clinical Practice Textcited by 12
  6. 2025CLINIC: Evaluating Multilingual Trustworthiness in Language Models for Healthcarecited by 9
  7. 2024TAIA: Large Language Models are Out-of-Distribution Data Learnerscited by 8
  8. 2024FEDMEKI: A Benchmark for Scaling Medical Foundation Models via Federated Knowledge Injectioncited by 8
  9. 2024JMedBench: A Benchmark for Evaluating Japanese Biomedical Large Language Modelscited by 8
  10. 2024From Text to Multimodality: Exploring the Evolution and Impact of Large Language Models in Medical Practicecited by 8
  11. 2024MING-MOE: Enhancing Medical Multi-Task Learning in Large Language Models with Sparse Mixture of Low-Rank Adapter Expertscited by 7
  12. 2024Unleashing the Potential of Vision-Language Pre-Training for 3D Zero-Shot Lesion Segmentation via Mask-Attribute Alignmentcited by 7
  13. 2024Structure-aware Domain Knowledge Injection for Large Language Modelscited by 6
  14. 2025Performance Evaluation of Large Language Models in Bangla Consumer Health Query Summarizationcited by 6
  15. 2025Alleviating Textual Reliance in Medical Language-guided Segmentation via Prototype-driven Semantic Approximationcited by 6
  16. 2024FEDKIM: Adaptive Federated Knowledge Injection into Medical Foundation Modelscited by 5
  17. 2025Knowledge Hierarchy Guided Biological-Medical Dataset Distillation for Domain LLM Trainingcited by 5
  18. 2025From large language models to multimodal AI: A scoping review on the potential of generative AI in medicinecited by 5
  19. 2025ADEPT: Continual Pretraining via Adaptive Expansion and Dynamic Decoupled Tuningcited by 5
  20. 2024MedCare: Advancing Medical LLMs through Decoupling Clinical Alignment and Knowledge Aggregationcited by 4
  21. 2025Enhancing the Medical Context-Awareness Ability of LLMs via Multifaceted Self-Refinement Learningcited by 4
  22. 2024Development and bilingual evaluation of Japanese medical large language model within reasonably low computational resourcescited by 3
  23. 2024Adapting LLMs for the Medical Domain in Portuguese: A Study on Fine-Tuning and Model Evaluationcited by 3
  24. 2025MoL for LLMs: Dual-Loss Optimization to Enhance Domain Expertise While Preserving General Capabilitiescited by 3
  25. 2025KaFT: Knowledge-aware Fine-tuning for Boosting LLMs' Domain-specific Question-Answering Performancecited by 3
  26. 2025PersianMedQA: Evaluating Large Language Models on a Persian-English Bilingual Medical Question Answering Benchmarkcited by 3
  27. 2025Evaluating LLMs Across Multi-Cognitive Levels: From Medical Knowledge Mastery to Scenario-Based Problem Solvingcited by 3
  28. 2025Select to Know: An Internal-External Knowledge Self-Selection Framework for Domain-Specific Question Answeringcited by 3
  29. 2026MPIB: A Benchmark for Medical Prompt Injection Attacks and Clinical Safety in LLMscited by 3
  30. 2026Judging LLM-as-a-Judge: Concerning Rubric Artifacts in LLM-based Automated Text Generation Evaluationcited by 3
  31. 2024Are Large Language Models True Healthcare Jacks-of-All-Trades? Benchmarking Across Health Professions Beyond Physician Examscited by 2
  32. 2024Diabetica: Adapting Large Language Model to Enhance Multiple Medical Tasks in Diabetes Care and Managementcited by 2
  33. 2025Fact or Guesswork? Evaluating Large Language Models' Medical Knowledge with Structured One-Hop Judgmentscited by 2
  34. 2025Long-context Non-factoid Question Answering in Indic Languagescited by 2
  35. 2025Benchmarking Large Multimodal Models for Ophthalmic Visual Question Answering with OphthalWeChatcited by 2
  36. 2026Collaborative Parameter Learning: Mitigating Forgetting via Parameter-Level Gradient Analysiscited by 2
  37. 2026Cross-Lingual Empirical Evaluation of Large Language Models for Arabic Medical Taskscited by 2
  38. 2026A decodability criterion predicts when hidden-state selection beats majority voting in large language modelscited by 2

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