mlsanityData to 14 Oct 2026

SALAD-Bench: A Hierarchical and Comprehensive Safety Benchmark for Large Language Models

arXiv 2402.05044 ↗First posted 7 Feb 2024cs.CL cs.AI cs.CRcited by 228

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Cited by 106 in LLM safety and security, but placed by its own abstract, which didn’t fit.

Abstract (arXiv)

In the rapidly evolving landscape of Large Language Models (LLMs), ensuring robust safety measures is paramount. To meet this crucial need, we propose SALAD-Bench, a safety benchmark specifically designed for evaluating LLMs, attack, and defense methods. Distinguished by its breadth, SALAD-Bench transcends conventional benchmarks through its large scale, rich diversity, intricate taxonomy spanning three levels, and versatile functionalities.SALAD-Bench is crafted with a meticulous array of questions, from standard queries to complex ones enriched with attack, defense modifications and multiple-choice. To effectively manage the inherent complexity, we introduce an innovative evaluators: the LLM-based MD-Judge for QA pairs with a particular focus on attack-enhanced queries, ensuring a seamless, and reliable evaluation. Above components extend SALAD-Bench from standard LLM safety evaluation to both LLM attack and defense methods evaluation, ensuring the joint-purpose utility. Our extensive experiments shed light on the resilience of LLMs against emerging threats and the efficacy of contemporary defense tactics. Data and evaluator are released under https://github.com/OpenSafetyLab/SALAD-BENCH.

Key facts. Cited by 228 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026). Builds on 36 of its 58 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 7 Feb 2024.

Builds on

36 of 58 references.

References · 36

  1. 2021LoRA: Low-Rank Adaptation of Large Language Modelscited by 14,380
  2. 2023Llama 2: Open Foundation and Fine-Tuned Chat Modelscited by 13,028
  3. 2021Training Verifiers to Solve Math Word Problemscited by 10,109
  4. 2019Sentence-BERT: Sentence Embeddings using Siamese BERT-Networkscited by 9,170
  5. 2023Judging LLM-as-a-Judge with MT-Bench and Chatbot Arenacited by 8,626
  6. 2020Measuring Massive Multitask Language Understandingcited by 7,963
  7. 2018Think you have Solved Question Answering? Try ARC, the AI2 Reasoning Challengecited by 4,886
  8. 2019HellaSwag: Can a Machine Really Finish Your Sentence?cited by 4,100
  9. 2023Qwen Technical Reportcited by 3,344
  10. 2023Universal and Transferable Adversarial Attacks on Aligned Language Modelscited by 3,104
  11. 2018CommonsenseQA: A Question Answering Challenge Targeting Commonsense Knowledgecited by 1,822
  12. 2023Jailbroken: How Does LLM Safety Training Fail?cited by 1,651
24 more
  1. 2024HarmBench: A Standardized Evaluation Framework for Automated Red Teaming and Robust Refusalcited by 1,429
  2. 2023Jailbreaking Black Box Large Language Models in Twenty Queriescited by 1,420
  3. 2020RealToxicityPrompts: Evaluating Neural Toxic Degeneration in Language Modelscited by 1,255
  4. 2023Llama Guard: LLM-based Input-Output Safeguard for Human-AI Conversationscited by 1,207
  5. 2023Fine-tuning Aligned Language Models Compromises Safety, Even When Users Do Not Intend To!cited by 1,154
  6. 2023BeaverTails: Towards Improved Safety Alignment of LLM via a Human-Preference Datasetcited by 860
  7. 2020CrowS-Pairs: A Challenge Dataset for Measuring Social Biases in Masked Language Modelscited by 710
  8. 2023Safe RLHF: Safe Reinforcement Learning from Human Feedbackcited by 656
  9. 2023Baseline Defenses for Adversarial Attacks Against Aligned Language Modelscited by 651
  10. 2023GPTFUZZER: Red Teaming Large Language Models with Auto-Generated Jailbreak Promptscited by 560
  11. 2023Jailbreaking ChatGPT via Prompt Engineering: An Empirical Studycited by 498
  12. 2023SmoothLLM: Defending Large Language Models Against Jailbreaking Attackscited by 469
  13. 2023Catastrophic Jailbreak of Open-source LLMs via Exploiting Generationcited by 451
  14. 2022ToxiGen: A Large-Scale Machine-Generated Dataset for Adversarial and Implicit Hate Speech Detectioncited by 422
  15. 2021BOLD: Dataset and Metrics for Measuring Biases in Open-Ended Language Generationcited by 412
  16. 2023Certifying LLM Safety against Adversarial Promptingcited by 266
  17. 2023ToxicChat: Unveiling Hidden Challenges of Toxicity Detection in Real-World User-AI Conversationcited by 231
  18. 2023Red-Teaming Large Language Models using Chain of Utterances for Safety-Alignmentcited by 223
  19. 2023Defending Against Alignment-Breaking Attacks via Robustly Aligned LLMcited by 192
  20. 2022A New Generation of Perspective API: Efficient Multilingual Character-level Transformerscited by 185
  21. 2023Do-Not-Answer: A Dataset for Evaluating Safeguards in LLMscited by 184
  22. 2023Sociotechnical Safety Evaluation of Generative AI Systemscited by 157
  23. 2023CValues: Measuring the Values of Chinese Large Language Models from Safety to Responsibilitycited by 85
  24. 2023TencentLLMEval: A Hierarchical Evaluation of Real-World Capabilities for Human-Aligned LLMscited by 5

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Cited by year (2026 to 14 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2024: 53; 2025: 97; 2026: 78.

228 papers.

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  1. 2024WildGuard: Open One-Stop Moderation Tools for Safety Risks, Jailbreaks, and Refusals of LLMscited by 496
  2. 2024OR-Bench: An Over-Refusal Benchmark for Large Language Modelscited by 244
  3. 2024ShieldGemma: Generative AI Content Moderation Based on Gemmacited by 243
  4. 2024SORRY-Bench: Systematically Evaluating Large Language Model Safety Refusalcited by 240
  5. 2024Optimization-based Prompt Injection Attack to LLM-as-a-Judgecited by 143
  6. 2024Know Your Limits: A Survey of Abstention in Large Language Modelscited by 121
  7. 2025A Comprehensive Survey in LLM(-Agent) Full Stack Safety: Data, Training and Deploymentcited by 116
  8. 2025The Geometry of Refusal in Large Language Models: Concept Cones and Representational Independencecited by 115
  9. 2024Machine Against the RAG: Jamming Retrieval-Augmented Generation with Blocker Documentscited by 102
  10. 2025GuardReasoner: Towards Reasoning-based LLM Safeguardscited by 100
  11. 2024RedCode: Risky Code Execution and Generation Benchmark for Code Agentscited by 90
  12. 2024SPA-VL: A Comprehensive Safety Preference Alignment Dataset for Vision Language Modelcited by 85
38 more
  1. 2025OpenAgentSafety: A Comprehensive Framework for Evaluating Real-World AI Agent Safetycited by 75
  2. 2024AIR-Bench 2024: A Safety Benchmark Based on Risk Categories from Regulations and Policiescited by 74
  3. 2026ToolSafe: Enhancing Tool Invocation Safety of LLM-based agents via Proactive Step-level Guardrail and Feedbackcited by 72
  4. 2025STAR-1: Safer Alignment of Reasoning LLMs with 1K Datacited by 68
  5. 2025Safety at Scale: A Comprehensive Survey of Large Model and Agent Safetycited by 67
  6. 2024SelfDefend: LLMs Can Defend Themselves against Jailbreaking in a Practical Mannercited by 63
  7. 2025Your Agent May Misevolve: Emergent Risks in Self-evolving LLM Agentscited by 62
  8. 2024ETA: Evaluating Then Aligning Safety of Vision Language Models at Inference Timecited by 60
  9. 2024SG-Bench: Evaluating LLM Safety Generalization Across Diverse Tasks and Prompt Typescited by 60
  10. 2025PolyGuard: A Multilingual Safety Moderation Tool for 17 Languagescited by 59
  11. 2024CYBERSECEVAL 3: Advancing the Evaluation of Cybersecurity Risks and Capabilities in Large Language Modelscited by 58
  12. 2024MineDreamer: Learning to Follow Instructions via Chain-of-Imagination for Simulated-World Controlcited by 53
  13. 2025T2ISafety: Benchmark for Assessing Fairness, Toxicity, and Privacy in Image Generationcited by 48
  14. 2024R2-Guard: Robust Reasoning Enabled LLM Guardrail via Knowledge-Enhanced Logical Reasoningcited by 43
  15. 2025AutoRedTeamer: Autonomous Red Teaming with Lifelong Attack Integrationcited by 43
  16. 2025GuardReasoner-VL: Safeguarding VLMs via Reinforced Reasoningcited by 42
  17. 2025Neither Valid nor Reliable? Investigating the Use of LLMs as Judgescited by 39
  18. 2024AI Risk Categorization Decoded (AIR 2024): From Government Regulations to Corporate Policiescited by 37
  19. 2024Assessment of Multimodal Large Language Models in Alignment with Human Valuescited by 36
  20. 2024Style Outweighs Substance: Failure Modes of LLM Judges in Alignment Benchmarkingcited by 35
  21. 2025Towards Robust and Secure Embodied AI: A Survey on Vulnerabilities and Attackscited by 34
  22. 2024S-Eval: Towards Automated and Comprehensive Safety Evaluation for Large Language Modelscited by 33
  23. 2025MCTS-Judge: Test-Time Scaling in LLM-as-a-Judge for Code Correctness Evaluationcited by 32
  24. 2024JailbreakEval: An Integrated Toolkit for Evaluating Jailbreak Attempts Against Large Language Modelscited by 31
  25. 2024A Survey of Useful LLM Evaluationcited by 29
  26. 2025Toward Generalizable Evaluation in the LLM Era: A Survey Beyond Benchmarkscited by 28
  27. 2025SaRO: Enhancing LLM Safety through Reasoning-based Alignmentcited by 26
  28. 2025The Scales of Justitia: A Comprehensive Survey on Safety Evaluation of LLMscited by 26
  29. 2025Visual Contextual Attack: Jailbreaking MLLMs with Image-Driven Context Injectioncited by 25
  30. 2025o3-mini vs DeepSeek-R1: Which One is Safer?cited by 24
  31. 2025FORTRESS: Frontier Risk Evaluation for National Security and Public Safetycited by 24
  32. 2025Layer-Aware Representation Filtering: Purifying Finetuning Data to Preserve LLM Safety Alignmentcited by 24
  33. 2025Beyond the Final Answer: Evaluating the Reasoning Trajectories of Tool-Augmented Agentscited by 24
  34. 2024Beyond Instruction Following: Evaluating Inferential Rule Following of Large Language Modelscited by 23
  35. 2024CLAVE: An Adaptive Framework for Evaluating Values of LLM Generated Responsescited by 23
  36. 2024On Calibration of LLM-based Guard Models for Reliable Content Moderationcited by 23
  37. 2025SafeDialBench: A Fine-Grained Safety Evaluation Benchmark for Large Language Models in Multi-Turn Dialogues with Diverse Jailbreak Attackscited by 23
  38. 2024FAIntbench: A Holistic and Precise Benchmark for Bias Evaluation in Text-to-Image Modelscited by 22

50 most cited of 228 All 228 (JSON)

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  1. 2025CASE-Bench: Context-Aware SafEty Benchmark for Large Language Models
  2. 2025LLM-Safety Evaluations Lack Robustness
  3. 2025MCP-SafetyBench: A Benchmark for Safety Evaluation of Large Language Models with Real-World MCP Servers
  4. 2023The Art of Defending: A Systematic Evaluation and Analysis of LLM Defense Strategies on Safety and Over-Defensiveness
  5. 2025Efficient LLM Safety Evaluation through Multi-Agent Debate
  6. 2025SafeTuneBed: A Toolkit for Benchmarking LLM Safety Alignment in Fine-Tuning
  7. 2025USB: A Comprehensive and Unified Safety Evaluation Benchmark for Multimodal Large Language Models
  8. 2025Attack and defense techniques in large language models: A survey and new perspectives