mlsanityData to 13 Oct 2026

FLAIR: a Country-Scale Land Cover Semantic Segmentation Dataset From Multi-Source Optical Imagery

arXiv 2310.13336 ↗First posted 20 Oct 2023cs.CV cs.AIcited by 41

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Abstract (arXiv)

We introduce the French Land cover from Aerospace ImageRy (FLAIR), an extensive dataset from the French National Institute of Geographical and Forest Information (IGN) that provides a unique and rich resource for large-scale geospatial analysis. FLAIR contains high-resolution aerial imagery with a ground sample distance of 20 cm and over 20 billion individually labeled pixels for precise land-cover classification. The dataset also integrates temporal and spectral data from optical satellite time series. FLAIR thus combines data with varying spatial, spectral, and temporal resolutions across over 817 km2 of acquisitions representing the full landscape diversity of France. This diversity makes FLAIR a valuable resource for the development and evaluation of novel methods for large-scale land-cover semantic segmentation and raises significant challenges in terms of computer vision, data fusion, and geospatial analysis. We also provide powerful uni- and multi-sensor baseline models that can be employed to assess algorithm's performance and for downstream applications. Through its extent and the quality of its annotation, FLAIR aims to spur improvements in monitoring and understanding key anthropogenic development indicators such as urban growth, deforestation, and soil artificialization. Dataset and codes can be accessed at https://ignf.github.io/FLAIR/

Key facts. Cited by 41 papers in the map (data through 13 Oct 2026). Builds on 20 of its 62 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 20 Oct 2023.

Builds on

20 of 62 references.

References · 20

  1. 2015Deep Residual Learning for Image Recognitioncited by 51,950
  2. 2015U-Net: Convolutional Networks for Biomedical Image Segmentationcited by 19,656
  3. 2016Feature Pyramid Networks for Object Detectioncited by 5,027
  4. 2015Delving Deep into Rectifiers: Surpassing Human-Level Performance on ImageNet Classificationcited by 3,601
  5. 2017Rethinking Atrous Convolution for Semantic Image Segmentationcited by 2,159
  6. 2017EuroSAT: A Novel Dataset and Deep Learning Benchmark for Land Use and Land Cover Classificationcited by 1,492
  7. 2018DeepGlobe 2018: A Challenge to Parse the Earth through Satellite Imagescited by 277
  8. 2021LoveDA: A Remote Sensing Land-Cover Dataset for Domain Adaptive Semantic Segmentationcited by 260
  9. 2021Panoptic Segmentation of Satellite Image Time Series with Convolutional Temporal Attention Networkscited by 142
  10. 2019SEN12MS -- A Curated Dataset of Georeferenced Multi-Spectral Sentinel-1/2 Imagery for Deep Learning and Data Fusioncited by 95
  11. 2021BigEarthNet-MM: A Large Scale Multi-Modal Multi-Label Benchmark Archive for Remote Sensing Image Classification and Retrievalcited by 92
  12. 2022OpenEarthMap: A Benchmark Dataset for Global High-Resolution Land Cover Mappingcited by 81
8 more
  1. 2022DynamicEarthNet: Daily Multi-Spectral Satellite Dataset for Semantic Change Segmentationcited by 78
  2. 2015DeepSat - A Learning framework for Satellite Imagerycited by 38
  3. 2022Enabling Country-Scale Land Cover Mapping with Meter-Resolution Satellite Imagerycited by 31
  4. 2020Semi-Supervised Semantic Segmentation in Earth Observation: The MiniFrance Suite, Dataset Analysis and Multi-task Network Studycited by 28
  5. 2020LandCoverNet: A global benchmark land cover classification training datasetcited by 18
  6. 2022FLAIR #1: semantic segmentation and domain adaptation datasetcited by 10
  7. 2023FLAIR #2: textural and temporal information for semantic segmentation from multi-source optical imagerycited by 9
  8. 2021Crop Rotation Modeling for Deep Learning-Based Parcel Classification from Satellite Time Seriescited by 5

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Cited by year (2026 to 13 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2023: 1; 2024: 10; 2025: 18; 2026: 12.

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  1. 2025TerraMind: Large-Scale Generative Multimodality for Earth Observationcited by 101
  2. 2024AnySat: One Earth Observation Model for Many Resolutions, Scales, and Modalitiescited by 73
  3. 2024PANGAEA: A Global and Inclusive Benchmark for Geospatial Foundation Modelscited by 66
  4. 2024OmniSat: Self-Supervised Modality Fusion for Earth Observationcited by 63
  5. 2023FoMo: Multi-Modal, Multi-Scale and Multi-Task Remote Sensing Foundation Models for Forest Monitoringcited by 31
  6. 2025GEO-Bench-2: From Performance to Capability, Rethinking Evaluation in Geospatial AIcited by 21
  7. 2024Towards Open-Vocabulary Remote Sensing Image Semantic Segmentationcited by 19
  8. 2025The Change You Want To Detect: Semantic Change Detection In Earth Observation With Hybrid Data Generationcited by 12
  9. 2025EarthSynth: Generating Informative Earth Observation with Diffusion Modelscited by 12
  10. 2026No One Knows the State of the Art in Geospatial Foundation Modelscited by 12
  11. 2024FRACTAL: An Ultra-Large-Scale Aerial Lidar Dataset for 3D Semantic Segmentation of Diverse Landscapescited by 11
  12. 2024FUSU: A Multi-temporal-source Land Use Change Segmentation Dataset for Fine-grained Urban Semantic Understandingcited by 11
29 more
  1. 2025UniGeoSeg: Towards Unified Open-World Segmentation for Geospatial Scenescited by 10
  2. 2025SCORE: Scene Context Matters in Open-Vocabulary Remote Sensing Instance Segmentationcited by 8
  3. 2025Annotation-Free Open-Vocabulary Segmentation for Remote-Sensing Imagescited by 8
  4. 2025FLAIR-HUB: Large-scale Multimodal Dataset for Land Cover and Crop Mappingcited by 6
  5. 2025SSL4Eco: A Global Seasonal Dataset for Geospatial Foundation Models in Ecologycited by 5
  6. 2024Cross-sensor self-supervised training and alignment for remote sensingcited by 3
  7. 2025Dual-Task Learning for Dead Tree Detection and Segmentation with Hybrid Self-Attention U-Nets in Aerial Imagerycited by 3
  8. 2025Towards Efficient Benchmarking of Foundation Models in Remote Sensing: A Capabilities Encoding Approachcited by 3
  9. 2024Detecting Looted Archaeological Sites from Satellite Image Time Seriescited by 2
  10. 2025A Sensor Agnostic Domain Generalization Framework for Leveraging Geospatial Foundation Models: Enhancing Semantic Segmentation viaSynergistic Pseudo-Labeling and Generative Learningcited by 2
  11. 2025MAESTRO: Masked AutoEncoders for Multimodal, Multitemporal, and Multispectral Earth Observation Datacited by 2
  12. 2024Contrastive Pretraining for Visual Concept Explanations of Socioeconomic Outcomescited by 1
  13. 2024Deep Multimodal Fusion for Semantic Segmentation of Remote Sensing Earth Observation Datacited by 1
  14. 2025On the Generalization of Representation Uncertainty in Earth Observationcited by 1
  15. 2025BotaCLIP: Contrastive Learning for Botany-Aware Representation of Earth Observation Datacited by 1
  16. 2026Remote Sensing Change Detection via Weak Temporal Supervisioncited by 1
  17. 2026Context-Aware Semantic Segmentation via Stage-Wise Attentioncited by 1
  18. 2026Cryo-Bench: Benchmarking Foundation Models for Cryosphere Mappingcited by 1
  19. 2026Local Precise Refinement: A Dual-Gated Mixture-of-Experts for Enhancing Foundation Model Generalization against Spectral Shiftscited by 1
  20. 2026GeoSANE: Learning Geospatial Representations from Models, Not Datacited by 1
  21. 2026Beyond Accuracy: Assessing Calibration of Geospatial Foundation Models and Their Sensitivity to Distribution Shiftscited by 1
  22. 2025Operational Change Detection for Geographical Information: Overview and Challengescited by 0
  23. 2025UniDiff: Parameter-Efficient Adaptation of Diffusion Models for Land Cover Classification with Multi-Modal Remotely Sensed Imagery and Sparse Annotationscited by 0
  24. 2025VLM2GeoVec: Toward Universal Multimodal Embeddings for Remote Sensingcited by 0
  25. 2026Hide and Seek: Investigating Redundancy in Earth Observation Imagerycited by 0
  26. 2026GeoSeg-OV: Bridging Geospatial Gaps with Structural Guidance for Open-Vocabulary Remote Sensing Segmentationcited by 0
  27. 2026Looks Can be Deceiving: Annotator and Reviewer Performance Across Imagery Sources in Crowd-Sourced Aerial Damage Assessmentcited by 0
  28. 2026Real-World Knowledge-Guided Change Data Synthesis for Remote Sensingcited by 0
  29. 2026From Change Captions to Change Detection: Semantic-Appearance Agreement Framework for Remote Sensing Change Detectioncited by 0