mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

Behind the Curtain: Learning Occluded Shapes for 3D Object Detection

arXiv 2112.02205 ↗First posted 4 Dec 2021cs.CV cs.AI cs.LGcited by 58

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Abstract (arXiv)

Advances in LiDAR sensors provide rich 3D data that supports 3D scene understanding. However, due to occlusion and signal miss, LiDAR point clouds are in practice 2.5D as they cover only partial underlying shapes, which poses a fundamental challenge to 3D perception. To tackle the challenge, we present a novel LiDAR-based 3D object detection model, dubbed Behind the Curtain Detector (BtcDet), which learns the object shape priors and estimates the complete object shapes that are partially occluded (curtained) in point clouds. BtcDet first identifies the regions that are affected by occlusion and signal miss. In these regions, our model predicts the probability of occupancy that indicates if a region contains object shapes. Integrated with this probability map, BtcDet can generate high-quality 3D proposals. Finally, the probability of occupancy is also integrated into a proposal refinement module to generate the final bounding boxes. Extensive experiments on the KITTI Dataset and the Waymo Open Dataset demonstrate the effectiveness of BtcDet. Particularly, for the 3D detection of both cars and cyclists on the KITTI benchmark, BtcDet surpasses all of the published state-of-the-art methods by remarkable margins. Code is released (https://github.com/Xharlie/BtcDet}{https://github.com/Xharlie/BtcDet).

Key facts. Cited by 58 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 44 of its 54 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 4 Dec 2021.

Builds on

44 of 54 references.

References · 44

  1. 2014Adam: A Method for Stochastic Optimizationcited by 36,960
  2. 2019Scalability in Perception for Autonomous Driving: Waymo Open Datasetcited by 2,436
  3. 2018PointPillars: Fast Encoders for Object Detection from Point Cloudscited by 1,707
  4. 2017VoxelNet: End-to-End Learning for Point Cloud Based 3D Object Detectioncited by 1,323
  5. 2018PointRCNN: 3D Object Proposal Generation and Detection from Point Cloudcited by 939
  6. 2019PV-RCNN: Point-Voxel Feature Set Abstraction for 3D Object Detectioncited by 890
  7. 2016Multi-View 3D Object Detection Network for Autonomous Drivingcited by 721
  8. 2019Deep Hough Voting for 3D Object Detection in Point Cloudscited by 648
  9. 2017Frustum PointNets for 3D Object Detection from RGB-D Datacited by 640
  10. 20203DSSD: Point-based 3D Single Stage Object Detectorcited by 440
  11. 2020Voxel R-CNN: Towards High Performance Voxel-based 3D Object Detectioncited by 409
  12. 2019From Points to Parts: 3D Object Detection from Point Cloud with Part-aware and Part-aggregation Networkcited by 366
32 more
  1. 2020Point-GNN: Graph Neural Network for 3D Object Detection in a Point Cloudcited by 335
  2. 2017Joint 3D Proposal Generation and Object Detection from View Aggregationcited by 325
  3. 2019STD: Sparse-to-Dense 3D Object Detector for Point Cloudcited by 282
  4. 2020Sparse Single Sweep LiDAR Point Cloud Segmentation via Learning Contextual Shape Priors from Scene Completioncited by 222
  5. 2020Multi-Task Multi-Sensor Fusion for 3D Object Detectioncited by 203
  6. 20203D-CVF: Generating Joint Camera and LiDAR Features Using Cross-View Spatial Feature Fusion for 3D Object Detectioncited by 176
  7. 2018Acquisition of Localization Confidence for Accurate Object Detectioncited by 174
  8. 2019End-to-End Multi-View Fusion for 3D Object Detection in LiDAR Point Cloudscited by 171
  9. 2020EPNet: Enhancing Point Features with Image Semantics for 3D Object Detectioncited by 164
  10. 2020CLOCs: Camera-LiDAR Object Candidates Fusion for 3D Object Detectioncited by 147
  11. 2020Pillar-based Object Detection for Autonomous Drivingcited by 137
  12. 2019IoU Loss for 2D/3D Object Detectioncited by 128
  13. 2019Frustum ConvNet: Sliding Frustums to Aggregate Local Point-Wise Features for Amodal 3D Object Detectioncited by 124
  14. 2019Fast Point R-CNNcited by 119
  15. 2019TANet: Robust 3D Object Detection from Point Clouds with Triple Attentioncited by 108
  16. 2020CIA-SSD: Confident IoU-Aware Single-Stage Object Detector From Point Cloudcited by 107
  17. 2019GS3D: An Efficient 3D Object Detection Framework for Autonomous Drivingcited by 106
  18. 2019Grid-GCN for Fast and Scalable Point Cloud Learningcited by 103
  19. 2021SPG: Unsupervised Domain Adaptation for 3D Object Detection via Semantic Point Generationcited by 93
  20. 2019Object as Hotspots: An Anchor-Free 3D Object Detection Approach via Firing of Hotspotscited by 84
  21. 2020HVNet: Hybrid Voxel Network for LiDAR Based 3D Object Detectioncited by 82
  22. 2015Sparse 3D convolutional neural networkscited by 71
  23. 2019What You See is What You Get: Exploiting Visibility for 3D Object Detectioncited by 69
  24. 2020AFDet: Anchor Free One Stage 3D Object Detectioncited by 63
  25. 2018Learning to See the Invisible: End-to-End Trainable Amodal Instance Segmentationcited by 62
  26. 2018Occlusion-aware R-CNN: Detecting Pedestrians in a Crowdcited by 58
  27. 2020Associate-3Ddet: Perceptual-to-Conceptual Association for 3D Point Cloud Object Detectioncited by 31
  28. 2020DOPS: Learning to Detect 3D Objects and Predict their 3D Shapescited by 27
  29. 2021MULLS: Versatile LiDAR SLAM via Multi-metric Linear Least Squarecited by 27
  30. 2021Occlusion Handling in Generic Object Detection: A Reviewcited by 25
  31. 2020SegVoxelNet: Exploring Semantic Context and Depth-aware Features for 3D Vehicle Detection from Point Cloudcited by 16
  32. 2021SIENet: Spatial Information Enhancement Network for 3D Object Detection from Point Cloudcited by 12

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Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2022: 15; 2023: 21; 2024: 13; 2025: 6; 2026: 3.

58 papers.

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  1. 20223D Object Detection for Autonomous Driving: A Comprehensive Surveycited by 132
  2. 2022CenterFormer: Center-based Transformer for 3D Object Detectioncited by 99
  3. 2023Virtual Sparse Convolution for Multimodal 3D Object Detectioncited by 81
  4. 2022Transformation-Equivariant 3D Object Detection for Autonomous Drivingcited by 52
  5. 2024MonoCD: Monocular 3D Object Detection with Complementary Depthscited by 38
  6. 2023Uni3DETR: Unified 3D Detection Transformercited by 26
  7. 2023Object Detection with Transformers: A Reviewcited by 22
  8. 2023PVT-SSD: Single-Stage 3D Object Detector with Point-Voxel Transformercited by 21
  9. 2024MonoDGP: Monocular 3D Object Detection with Decoupled-Query and Geometry-Error Priorscited by 21
  10. 2022MAELi: Masked Autoencoder for Large-Scale LiDAR Point Cloudscited by 20
  11. 2022Rethinking IoU-based Optimization for Single-stage 3D Object Detectioncited by 19
  12. 2022Dense Voxel Fusion for 3D Object Detectioncited by 17
38 more
  1. 2024MonoMAE: Enhancing Monocular 3D Detection through Depth-Aware Masked Autoencoderscited by 15
  2. 2022Sparse2Dense: Learning to Densify 3D Features for 3D Object Detectioncited by 14
  3. 2023Unsupervised Adaptation from Repeated Traversals for Autonomous Drivingcited by 13
  4. 2023PointSSC: A Cooperative Vehicle-Infrastructure Point Cloud Benchmark for Semantic Scene Completioncited by 13
  5. 2023Curricular Object Manipulation in LiDAR-based Object Detectioncited by 12
  6. 2023PG-RCNN: Semantic Surface Point Generation for 3D Object Detectioncited by 12
  7. 2022Real-Time and Robust 3D Object Detection Within Road-Side LiDARs Using Domain Adaptationcited by 10
  8. 2022Multimodal Transformer for Automatic 3D Annotation and Object Detectioncited by 10
  9. 2024An Empirical Study of the Generalization Ability of Lidar 3D Object Detectors to Unseen Domainscited by 10
  10. 2022Common Corruption Robustness of Point Cloud Detectors: Benchmark and Enhancementcited by 9
  11. 2023SSD-MonoDETR: Supervised Scale-aware Deformable Transformer for Monocular 3D Object Detectioncited by 9
  12. 2022Paint and Distill: Boosting 3D Object Detection with Semantic Passing Networkcited by 7
  13. 2024CT3D++: Improving 3D Object Detection with Keypoint-induced Channel-wise Transformercited by 7
  14. 2023Generalized Few-Shot 3D Object Detection of LiDAR Point Cloud for Autonomous Drivingcited by 6
  15. 2023Domain Generalization of 3D Object Detection by Density-Resamplingcited by 6
  16. 2022OBMO: One Bounding Box Multiple Objects for Monocular 3D Object Detectioncited by 5
  17. 2024Weak-to-Strong 3D Object Detection with X-Ray Distillationcited by 5
  18. 2023Multi-Modal 3D Object Detection by Box Matchingcited by 4
  19. 2023BSH-Det3D: Improving 3D Object Detection with BEV Shape Heatmapcited by 2
  20. 2023DR.CPO: Diversified and Realistic 3D Augmentation via Iterative Construction, Random Placement, and HPR Occlusioncited by 2
  21. 20233D objects and scenes classification, recognition, segmentation, and reconstruction using 3D point cloud data: A reviewcited by 2
  22. 2023MaskBEV: Joint Object Detection and Footprint Completion for Bird's-eye View 3D Point Cloudscited by 2
  23. 2024DCDet: Dynamic Cross-based 3D Object Detectorcited by 2
  24. 2024NIV-SSD: Neighbor IoU-Voting Single-Stage Object Detector From Point Cloudcited by 2
  25. 2025Multistream Network for LiDAR and Camera-based 3D Object Detection in Outdoor Scenescited by 2
  26. 2022SEFormer: Structure Embedding Transformer for 3D Object Detectioncited by 1
  27. 2023What You See Is What You Detect: Towards better Object Densification in 3D detectioncited by 1
  28. 2023Refining the ONCE Benchmark with Hyperparameter Tuningcited by 1
  29. 2024AVS-Net: Point Sampling with Adaptive Voxel Size for 3D Scene Understandingcited by 1
  30. 2024TS40K: a 3D Point Cloud Dataset of Rural Terrain and Electrical Transmission Systemcited by 1
  31. 2024FSMDet: Vision-guided feature diffusion for fully sparse 3D detectorcited by 1
  32. 2025Enhancing Pseudo-Boxes via Data-Level LiDAR-Camera Fusion for Unsupervised 3D Object Detectioncited by 1
  33. 2025All You Need for Object Detection: From Pixels, Points, and Prompts to Next-Gen Fusion and Multimodal LLMs/VLMs in Autonomous Vehiclescited by 1
  34. 2026AW-MoE: All-Weather Mixture of Experts for Robust Multi-Modal 3D Object Detectioncited by 1
  35. 2022Weighted Bayesian Gaussian Mixture Model for Roadside LiDAR Object Detectioncited by 0
  36. 2022DNN Filter for Bias Reduction in Distribution-to-Distribution Scan Matchingcited by 0
  37. 2023Are All Point Clouds Suitable for Completion? Weakly Supervised Quality Evaluation Network for Point Cloud Completioncited by 0
  38. 2023S3-MonoDETR: Supervised Shape&Scale-perceptive Deformable Transformer for Monocular 3D Object Detectioncited by 0

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