Plain English Summarization of Contracts
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Abstract (arXiv)
Unilateral contracts, such as terms of service, play a substantial role in modern digital life. However, few users read these documents before accepting the terms within, as they are too long and the language too complicated. We propose the task of summarizing such legal documents in plain English, which would enable users to have a better understanding of the terms they are accepting. We propose an initial dataset of legal text snippets paired with summaries written in plain English. We verify the quality of these summaries manually and show that they involve heavy abstraction, compression, and simplification. Initial experiments show that unsupervised extractive summarization methods do not perform well on this task due to the level of abstraction and style differences. We conclude with a call for resource and technique development for simplification and style transfer for legal language.
Key facts. Cited by 28 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 2 Jun 2019.
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Citing papers per year: 2021: 5; 2022: 3; 2023: 4; 2024: 7; 2025: 6; 2026: 3.
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- 2021A Statutory Article Retrieval Dataset in Frenchcited by 40
- 2022EUR-Lex-Sum: A Multi- and Cross-lingual Dataset for Long-form Summarization in the Legal Domaincited by 39
- 2024I Don't Know: Explicit Modeling of Uncertainty with an [IDK] Tokencited by 26
- 2022Legal Case Document Summarization: Extractive and Abstractive Methods and their Evaluationcited by 23
- 2024Leveraging Large Language Models for Learning Complex Legal Concepts through Storytellingcited by 23
- 2023Investigating Hallucinations in Pruned Large Language Models for Abstractive Summarizationcited by 16
- 2021Robust Deep Reinforcement Learning for Extractive Legal Summarizationcited by 10
- 2024LawInstruct: A Resource for Studying Language Model Adaptation to the Legal Domaincited by 10
- 2023The Law and NLP: Bridging Disciplinary Disconnectscited by 8
- 2022Agent-Specific Deontic Modality Detection in Legal Languagecited by 7
- 2025A Comprehensive Survey on Legal Summarization: Challenges and Future Directionscited by 6
- 2025Evaluating the Evaluators: Are readability metrics good measures of readability?cited by 6
16 more
- 2025The Massive Legal Embedding Benchmark (MLEB)cited by 6
- 2021Privacy Policy Question Answering Assistant: A Query-Guided Extractive Summarization Approachcited by 5
- 2024Optimizing Numerical Estimation and Operational Efficiency in the Legal Domain through Large Language Modelscited by 5
- 2024Enterprise Benchmarks for Large Language Model Evaluationcited by 5
- 2025VLQA: The First Comprehensive, Large, and High-Quality Vietnamese Dataset for Legal Question Answeringcited by 4
- 2021Fairness-aware Summarization for Justified Decision-Makingcited by 3
- 2024Legal Fact Prediction: The Missing Piece in Legal Judgment Predictioncited by 3
- 2023Data and Approaches for German Text simplification -- towards an Accessibility-enhanced Communicationcited by 2
- 2024How Private are Language Models in Abstractive Summarization?cited by 2
- 2021VieSum: How Robust Are Transformer-based Models on Vietnamese Summarization?cited by 1
- 2023Analyzing Hong Kong's Legal Judgments from a Computational Linguistics point-of-viewcited by 1
- 2025The Medium Is Not the Message: Deconfounding Document Embeddings via Linear Concept Erasurecited by 1
- 2026Evaluation of Large Language Models in Legal Applications: Challenges, Methods, and Future Directionscited by 1
- 2025CourtPressGER: A German Court Decision to Press Release Summarization Datasetcited by 0
- 2026HAKARI-Bench: A Lightweight Benchmark for Comparing Retrieval Architectures and Efficiency Settings under Unified Conditionscited by 0
- 2026CorporateBench: Large-Scale Q&A Benchmarking with Temporal Knowledge Basescited by 0
- 2026CorporateBench: Large-Scale Q&A Benchmarking with Temporal Knowledge Bases27 Aug 2026
- 2026HAKARI-Bench: A Lightweight Benchmark for Comparing Retrieval Architectures and Efficiency Settings under Unified Conditions22 Jun 2026
- 2026Evaluation of Large Language Models in Legal Applications: Challenges, Methods, and Future Directions21 Jan 2026
- 2025CourtPressGER: A German Court Decision to Press Release Summarization Dataset10 Dec 2025
- 2025The Massive Legal Embedding Benchmark (MLEB)22 Oct 2025
- 2025Evaluating the Evaluators: Are readability metrics good measures of readability?26 Aug 2025
- 2025VLQA: The First Comprehensive, Large, and High-Quality Vietnamese Dataset for Legal Question Answering26 Jul 2025
- 2025The Medium Is Not the Message: Deconfounding Document Embeddings via Linear Concept Erasure1 Jul 2025
- 2025A Comprehensive Survey on Legal Summarization: Challenges and Future Directions29 Jan 2025
- 2024How Private are Language Models in Abstractive Summarization?16 Dec 2024
- 2024I Don't Know: Explicit Modeling of Uncertainty with an [IDK] Token9 Dec 2024
- 2024Enterprise Benchmarks for Large Language Model Evaluation11 Oct 2024
16 more
- 2024Legal Fact Prediction: The Missing Piece in Legal Judgment Prediction11 Sep 2024
- 2024Optimizing Numerical Estimation and Operational Efficiency in the Legal Domain through Large Language Models26 Jul 2024
- 2024LawInstruct: A Resource for Studying Language Model Adaptation to the Legal Domain2 Apr 2024
- 2024Leveraging Large Language Models for Learning Complex Legal Concepts through Storytelling26 Feb 2024
- 2023Data and Approaches for German Text simplification -- towards an Accessibility-enhanced Communication15 Dec 2023
- 2023Investigating Hallucinations in Pruned Large Language Models for Abstractive Summarization15 Nov 2023
- 2023The Law and NLP: Bridging Disciplinary Disconnects22 Oct 2023
- 2023Analyzing Hong Kong's Legal Judgments from a Computational Linguistics point-of-view4 May 2023
- 2022Agent-Specific Deontic Modality Detection in Legal Language23 Nov 2022
- 2022EUR-Lex-Sum: A Multi- and Cross-lingual Dataset for Long-form Summarization in the Legal Domain24 Oct 2022
- 2022Legal Case Document Summarization: Extractive and Abstractive Methods and their Evaluation14 Oct 2022
- 2021Robust Deep Reinforcement Learning for Extractive Legal Summarization13 Nov 2021
- 2021VieSum: How Robust Are Transformer-based Models on Vietnamese Summarization?8 Oct 2021
- 2021Privacy Policy Question Answering Assistant: A Query-Guided Extractive Summarization Approach29 Sep 2021
- 2021A Statutory Article Retrieval Dataset in French26 Aug 2021
- 2021Fairness-aware Summarization for Justified Decision-Making13 Jul 2021
- 2022Agent-Specific Deontic Modality Detection in Legal Language23 Nov 2022
- 2021A Statutory Article Retrieval Dataset in Frenchcited by 40
- 2022EUR-Lex-Sum: A Multi- and Cross-lingual Dataset for Long-form Summarization in the Legal Domaincited by 39
- 2024I Don't Know: Explicit Modeling of Uncertainty with an [IDK] Tokencited by 26
- 2022Legal Case Document Summarization: Extractive and Abstractive Methods and their Evaluationcited by 23
- 2024Leveraging Large Language Models for Learning Complex Legal Concepts through Storytellingcited by 23
- 2023Investigating Hallucinations in Pruned Large Language Models for Abstractive Summarizationcited by 16
- 2021Robust Deep Reinforcement Learning for Extractive Legal Summarizationcited by 10
- 2024LawInstruct: A Resource for Studying Language Model Adaptation to the Legal Domaincited by 10
- 2023The Law and NLP: Bridging Disciplinary Disconnectscited by 8
- 2025A Comprehensive Survey on Legal Summarization: Challenges and Future Directionscited by 6
- 2025Evaluating the Evaluators: Are readability metrics good measures of readability?cited by 6
- 2025The Massive Legal Embedding Benchmark (MLEB)cited by 6
12 most cited of 26 All 26 (JSON)
- 2026CorporateBench: Large-Scale Q&A Benchmarking with Temporal Knowledge Bases27 Aug 2026
- 2026Evaluation of Large Language Models in Legal Applications: Challenges, Methods, and Future Directions21 Jan 2026
- 2025CourtPressGER: A German Court Decision to Press Release Summarization Dataset10 Dec 2025
- 2025The Massive Legal Embedding Benchmark (MLEB)22 Oct 2025
- 2025Evaluating the Evaluators: Are readability metrics good measures of readability?26 Aug 2025
- 2025VLQA: The First Comprehensive, Large, and High-Quality Vietnamese Dataset for Legal Question Answering26 Jul 2025
- 2025The Medium Is Not the Message: Deconfounding Document Embeddings via Linear Concept Erasure1 Jul 2025
- 2025A Comprehensive Survey on Legal Summarization: Challenges and Future Directions29 Jan 2025
- 2024How Private are Language Models in Abstractive Summarization?16 Dec 2024
- 2024I Don't Know: Explicit Modeling of Uncertainty with an [IDK] Token9 Dec 2024
- 2024Enterprise Benchmarks for Large Language Model Evaluation11 Oct 2024
- 2024Legal Fact Prediction: The Missing Piece in Legal Judgment Prediction11 Sep 2024
12 newest of 26 All 26 (JSON)