Spectral Methods meet EM: A Provably Optimal Algorithm for Crowdsourcing
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Abstract (arXiv)
Crowdsourcing is a popular paradigm for effectively collecting labels at low cost. The Dawid-Skene estimator has been widely used for inferring the true labels from the noisy labels provided by non-expert crowdsourcing workers. However, since the estimator maximizes a non-convex log-likelihood function, it is hard to theoretically justify its performance. In this paper, we propose a two-stage efficient algorithm for multi-class crowd labeling problems. The first stage uses the spectral method to obtain an initial estimate of parameters. Then the second stage refines the estimation by optimizing the objective function of the Dawid-Skene estimator via the EM algorithm. We show that our algorithm achieves the optimal convergence rate up to a logarithmic factor. We conduct extensive experiments on synthetic and real datasets. Experimental results demonstrate that the proposed algorithm is comparable to the most accurate empirical approach, while outperforming several other recently proposed methods.
Key facts. Cited by 63 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 15 Jun 2014.
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Citing papers per year: 2018: 1; 2019: 0; 2020: 0; 2021: 14; 2022: 10; 2023: 12; 2024: 14; 2025: 5; 2026: 7.
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- 2021Detecting Corrupted Labels Without Training a Model to Predictcited by 57
- 2024If in a Crowdsourced Data Annotation Pipeline, a GPT-4cited by 38
- 2022Identifiability of Label Noise Transition Matrixcited by 34
- 2021End-to-End Weak Supervisioncited by 33
- 2022Beyond Images: Label Noise Transition Matrix Estimation for Tasks with Lower-Quality Featurescited by 27
- 2022Convergence of gradient descent for deep neural networkscited by 24
- 2024Bayesian Calibration of Win Rate Estimation with LLM Evaluatorscited by 15
- 2021An Instance-Dependent Simulation Framework for Learning with Label Noisecited by 14
- 2018Breaking the gridlock in Mixture-of-Experts: Consistent and Efficient Algorithmscited by 13
- 2023Deep Learning From Crowdsourced Labels: Coupled Cross-entropy Minimization, Identifiability, and Regularizationcited by 12
- 2024Theoretical Constraints on the Expressive Power of mathsfRoPE-based Tensor Attention Transformerscited by 12
- 2022Knowledge Learning with Crowdsourcing: A Brief Review and Systematic Perspectivecited by 11
38 more
- 2021CrowdSpeech and VoxDIY: Benchmark Datasets for Crowdsourced Audio Transcriptioncited by 9
- 2021Crowdsourcing via Annotator Co-occurrence Imputation and Provable Symmetric Nonnegative Matrix Factorizationcited by 6
- 2023Deep Clustering with Incomplete Noisy Pairwise Annotations: A Geometric Regularization Approachcited by 5
- 2025CrowdLLM: Building LLM-Based Digital Populations Augmented with Generative Modelscited by 5
- 2021Surprisingly Popular Voting Recovers Rankings, Surprisingly!cited by 4
- 2021Rethinking Noisy Label Models: Labeler-Dependent Noise with Adversarial Awarenesscited by 4
- 2023A Taxonomy of Rater Disagreements: Surveying Challenges & Opportunities from the Perspective of Annotating Online Toxicitycited by 4
- 2022Ensemble learning using individual neonatal data for seizure detectioncited by 3
- 2023Transfer Learning for Kernel-based Regressioncited by 3
- 2021OpinionRank: Extracting Ground Truth Labels from Unreliable Expert Opinions with Graph-Based Spectral Rankingcited by 2
- 2021A Worker-Task Specialization Model for Crowdsourcing: Efficient Inference and Fundamental Limitscited by 2
- 2022A Light-weight, Effective and Efficient Model for Label Aggregation in Crowdsourcingcited by 2
- 2023Streaming algorithms for evaluating noisy judges on unlabeled data -- binary classificationcited by 2
- 2024Scalable Interactive Machine Learning for Future Command and Controlcited by 2
- 2024Learning From Crowdsourced Noisy Labels: A Signal Processing Perspectivecited by 2
- 2024Sharp bounds on aggregate expert errorcited by 2
- 2025Time and Memory Trade-off of KV-Cache Compression in Tensor Transformer Decodingcited by 2
- 2021Detecting adversaries in Crowdsourcingcited by 1
- 2022Unsupervised Crowdsourcing with Accuracy and Cost Guaranteescited by 1
- 2022Stability of Weighted Majority Voting under Estimated Weightscited by 1
- 2023An Adaptive Method for Weak Supervision with Drifting Datacited by 1
- 2023HITSnDIFFs: From Truth Discovery to Ability Discovery by Recovering Matrices with the Consecutive Ones Propertycited by 1
- 2024Leveraging Large Language Models for Structure Learning in Prompted Weak Supervisioncited by 1
- 2024Convergence Behavior of an Adversarial Weak Supervision Methodcited by 1
- 2024In-context Learning for Mixture of Linear Regressions: Existence, Generalization and Training Dynamicscited by 1
- 2026Probabilistic Label Spreading: Efficient and Consistent Estimation of Soft Labels with Epistemic Uncertainty on Graphscited by 1
- 2026Multi-LLM Query Optimizationcited by 1
- 2021A Symmetric Loss Perspective of Reliable Machine Learningcited by 0
- 2021Temporal-aware Language Representation Learning From Crowdsourced Labelscited by 0
- 2021How to Query An Oracle? Efficient Strategies to Label Datacited by 0
- 2021Scheduling to Learn In An Unsupervised Online Streaming Modelcited by 0
- 2022Regularized Data Programming with Automated Bayesian Prior Selectioncited by 0
- 2022Recovering Top-Two Answers and Confusion Probability in Multi-Choice Crowdsourcingcited by 0
- 2023AutoWS: Automated Weak Supervision Framework for Text Classificationcited by 0
- 2023Spectral Clustering for Crowdsourcing with Inherently Distinct Task Typescited by 0
- 2023Fundamental Tradeoffs in Learning with Prior Informationcited by 0
- 2023Unsupervised Opinion Aggregation -- A Statistical Perspectivecited by 0
- 2023Towards Long-term Annotators: A Supervised Label Aggregation Baselinecited by 0
50 most cited of 63 All 63 (JSON)
- 2026Weakly Supervised Quantum Error Mitigation22 Sep 2026
- 2026Debiased Inference for AI-Generated Data without Gold-Standard Labels: Identification via Multiple Imperfect Measurements18 Aug 2026
- 2026Dual-Primal Graph VAEs for Noisy Label Aggregation11 Aug 2026
- 2026AHEAD: Advancing Multi-Class Label Aggregation with Interpretable Cross-Annotator Modeling20 Jul 2026
- 2026Multi-LLM Query Optimization24 Mar 2026
- 2026FastBUS: A Fast Bayesian Framework for Unified Weakly-Supervised Learning28 Feb 2026
- 2026Probabilistic Label Spreading: Efficient and Consistent Estimation of Soft Labels with Epistemic Uncertainty on Graphs4 Feb 2026
- 2025CrowdLLM: Building LLM-Based Digital Populations Augmented with Generative Models2 Dec 2025
- 2025Users as Annotators: LLM Preference Learning from Comparison Mode10 Oct 2025
- 2025Logical Consistency Between Disagreeing Experts and Its Role in AI Safety1 Oct 2025
- 2025Time and Memory Trade-off of KV-Cache Compression in Tensor Transformer Decoding14 Mar 2025
- 2025The Majority Vote Paradigm Shift: When Popular Meets Optimal18 Feb 2025
38 more
- 2024Theoretical Constraints on the Expressive Power of mathsfRoPE-based Tensor Attention Transformers23 Dec 2024
- 2024Bayesian Calibration of Win Rate Estimation with LLM Evaluators7 Nov 2024
- 2024In-context Learning for Mixture of Linear Regressions: Existence, Generalization and Training Dynamics18 Oct 2024
- 2024Rank Aggregation in Crowdsourcing for Listwise Annotations10 Oct 2024
- 2024A logical alarm for misaligned binary classifiers17 Sep 2024
- 2024How to Train Text Summarization Model with Weak Supervisions27 Aug 2024
- 2024Ranking and Combining Latent Structured Predictive Scores without Labeled Data14 Aug 2024
- 2024Sharp bounds on aggregate expert error23 Jul 2024
- 2024Learning From Crowdsourced Noisy Labels: A Signal Processing Perspective9 Jul 2024
- 2024Convergence Behavior of an Adversarial Weak Supervision Method25 May 2024
- 2024If in a Crowdsourced Data Annotation Pipeline, a GPT-426 Feb 2024
- 2024Scalable Interactive Machine Learning for Future Command and Control9 Feb 2024
- 2024Leveraging Large Language Models for Structure Learning in Prompted Weak Supervision2 Feb 2024
- 2024Adaptive Crowdsourcing Via Self-Supervised Learning24 Jan 2024
- 2023HITSnDIFFs: From Truth Discovery to Ability Discovery by Recovering Matrices with the Consecutive Ones Property21 Dec 2023
- 2023Towards Long-term Annotators: A Supervised Label Aggregation Baseline15 Nov 2023
- 2023A Taxonomy of Rater Disagreements: Surveying Challenges & Opportunities from the Perspective of Annotating Online Toxicity7 Nov 2023
- 2023Transfer Learning for Kernel-based Regression21 Oct 2023
- 2023Unsupervised Opinion Aggregation -- A Statistical Perspective20 Aug 2023
- 2023Deep Learning From Crowdsourced Labels: Coupled Cross-entropy Minimization, Identifiability, and Regularization5 Jun 2023
- 2023Streaming algorithms for evaluating noisy judges on unlabeled data -- binary classification2 Jun 2023
- 2023An Adaptive Method for Weak Supervision with Drifting Data2 Jun 2023
- 2023Deep Clustering with Incomplete Noisy Pairwise Annotations: A Geometric Regularization Approach30 May 2023
- 2023Fundamental Tradeoffs in Learning with Prior Information26 Apr 2023
- 2023Spectral Clustering for Crowdsourcing with Inherently Distinct Task Types14 Feb 2023
- 2023AutoWS: Automated Weak Supervision Framework for Text Classification7 Feb 2023
- 2022Recovering Top-Two Answers and Confusion Probability in Multi-Choice Crowdsourcing29 Dec 2022
- 2022A Light-weight, Effective and Efficient Model for Label Aggregation in Crowdsourcing19 Nov 2022
- 2022Regularized Data Programming with Automated Bayesian Prior Selection17 Oct 2022
- 2022Stability of Weighted Majority Voting under Estimated Weights13 Jul 2022
- 2022Unsupervised Crowdsourcing with Accuracy and Cost Guarantees5 Jul 2022
- 2022Knowledge Learning with Crowdsourcing: A Brief Review and Systematic Perspective19 Jun 2022
- 2022Ensemble learning using individual neonatal data for seizure detection11 Apr 2022
- 2022Convergence of gradient descent for deep neural networks30 Mar 2022
- 2022Identifiability of Label Noise Transition Matrix4 Feb 2022
- 2022Beyond Images: Label Noise Transition Matrix Estimation for Tasks with Lower-Quality Features2 Feb 2022
- 2021Scheduling to Learn In An Unsupervised Online Streaming Model2 Dec 2021
- 2021A Worker-Task Specialization Model for Crowdsourcing: Efficient Inference and Fundamental Limits19 Nov 2021
50 newest of 63 All 63 (JSON)
- 2021Detecting Corrupted Labels Without Training a Model to Predictcited by 57
- 2024If in a Crowdsourced Data Annotation Pipeline, a GPT-4cited by 38
- 2022Identifiability of Label Noise Transition Matrixcited by 34
- 2021End-to-End Weak Supervisioncited by 33
- 2022Beyond Images: Label Noise Transition Matrix Estimation for Tasks with Lower-Quality Featurescited by 27
- 2022Convergence of gradient descent for deep neural networkscited by 24
- 2024Bayesian Calibration of Win Rate Estimation with LLM Evaluatorscited by 15
- 2021An Instance-Dependent Simulation Framework for Learning with Label Noisecited by 14
- 2023Deep Learning From Crowdsourced Labels: Coupled Cross-entropy Minimization, Identifiability, and Regularizationcited by 12
- 2024Theoretical Constraints on the Expressive Power of mathsfRoPE-based Tensor Attention Transformerscited by 12
- 2022Knowledge Learning with Crowdsourcing: A Brief Review and Systematic Perspectivecited by 11
- 2021CrowdSpeech and VoxDIY: Benchmark Datasets for Crowdsourced Audio Transcriptioncited by 9
12 most cited of 60 All 60 (JSON)
- 2026Weakly Supervised Quantum Error Mitigation22 Sep 2026
- 2026Debiased Inference for AI-Generated Data without Gold-Standard Labels: Identification via Multiple Imperfect Measurements18 Aug 2026
- 2026Dual-Primal Graph VAEs for Noisy Label Aggregation11 Aug 2026
- 2026AHEAD: Advancing Multi-Class Label Aggregation with Interpretable Cross-Annotator Modeling20 Jul 2026
- 2026Multi-LLM Query Optimization24 Mar 2026
- 2026FastBUS: A Fast Bayesian Framework for Unified Weakly-Supervised Learning28 Feb 2026
- 2026Probabilistic Label Spreading: Efficient and Consistent Estimation of Soft Labels with Epistemic Uncertainty on Graphs4 Feb 2026
- 2025CrowdLLM: Building LLM-Based Digital Populations Augmented with Generative Models2 Dec 2025
- 2025Logical Consistency Between Disagreeing Experts and Its Role in AI Safety1 Oct 2025
- 2025The Majority Vote Paradigm Shift: When Popular Meets Optimal18 Feb 2025
- 2024Theoretical Constraints on the Expressive Power of mathsfRoPE-based Tensor Attention Transformers23 Dec 2024
- 2024Bayesian Calibration of Win Rate Estimation with LLM Evaluators7 Nov 2024
12 newest of 60 All 60 (JSON)