Masked Depth Modeling for Spatial Perception
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Abstract (arXiv)
Spatial visual perception is a fundamental requirement in physical-world applications like autonomous driving and robotic manipulation, driven by the need to interact with 3D environments. Capturing pixel-aligned metric depth using RGB-D cameras would be the most viable way, yet it usually faces obstacles posed by hardware limitations and challenging imaging conditions, especially in the presence of specular or texture-less surfaces. In this work, we argue that the inaccuracies from depth sensors can be viewed as "masked" signals that inherently reflect underlying geometric ambiguities. Building on this motivation, we present LingBot-Depth, a depth completion model which leverages visual context to refine depth maps through masked depth modeling and incorporates an automated data curation pipeline for scalable training. It is encouraging to see that our model outperforms top-tier RGB-D cameras in terms of both depth precision and pixel coverage. Experimental results on a range of downstream tasks further suggest that LingBot-Depth offers an aligned latent representation across RGB and depth modalities. We release the code, checkpoint, and 3M RGB-depth pairs (including 2M real data and 1M simulated data) to the community of spatial perception.
Key facts. Cited by 24 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 29 of its 39 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 25 Jan 2026.
Builds on
29 of 39 references.
References · 29
- 2020An Image is Worth 16x16 Words: Transformers for Image Recognition at Scalecited by 29,915
- 2023DINOv2: Learning Robust Visual Features without Supervisioncited by 7,764
- 2021Masked Autoencoders Are Scalable Vision Learnerscited by 7,339
- 2025VGGT: Visual Geometry Grounded Transformercited by 1,475
- 2024Depth Anything V2cited by 1,385
- 2023Self-Supervised Learning from Images with a Joint-Embedding Predictive Architecturecited by 982
- 2023ScanNet++: A High-Fidelity Dataset of 3D Indoor Scenescited by 747
- 2018Taskonomy: Disentangling Task Transfer Learningcited by 631
- 2022Google Scanned Objects: A High-Quality Dataset of 3D Scanned Household Itemscited by 601
- 2020Hypersim: A Photorealistic Synthetic Dataset for Holistic Indoor Scene Understandingcited by 593
- 2020TartanAir: A Dataset to Push the Limits of Visual SLAMcited by 494
- 2021ARKitScenes: A Diverse Real-World Dataset For 3D Indoor Scene Understanding Using Mobile RGB-D Datacited by 442
17 more
- 20193D Packing for Self-Supervised Monocular Depth Estimationcited by 437
- 2022HOI4D: A 4D Egocentric Dataset for Category-Level Human-Object Interactioncited by 321
- 2024MoGe: Unlocking Accurate Monocular Geometry Estimation for Open-Domain Images with Optimal Training Supervisioncited by 290
- 2025MoGe-2: Accurate Monocular Geometry with Metric Scale and Sharp Detailscited by 250
- 2019DIODE: A Dense Indoor and Outdoor DEpth Datasetcited by 236
- 2023Spring: A High-Resolution High-Detail Dataset and Benchmark for Scene Flow, Optical Flow and Stereocited by 170
- 2025FoundationStereo: Zero-Shot Stereo Matchingcited by 168
- 2023Aria Digital Twin: A New Benchmark Dataset for Egocentric 3D Machine Perceptioncited by 166
- 2019ClearGrasp: 3D Shape Estimation of Transparent Objects for Manipulationcited by 124
- 2025SpatialTrackerV2: 3D Point Tracking Made Easycited by 84
- 2024Prompting Depth Anything for 4K Resolution Accurate Metric Depth Estimationcited by 73
- 2022Domain Randomization-Enhanced Depth Simulation and Restoration for Perceiving and Grasping Specular and Transparent Objectscited by 49
- 2022Open Challenges in Deep Stereo: the Booster Datasetcited by 48
- 2025Depth Anything with Any Priorcited by 32
- 2024OMNI-DC: Highly Robust Depth Completion with Multiresolution Depth Integrationcited by 28
- 2022Is my Depth Ground-Truth Good Enough? HAMMER -- Highly Accurate Multi-Modal Dataset for DEnse 3D Scene Regressioncited by 18
- 2024D3RoMa: Disparity Diffusion-based Depth Sensing for Material-Agnostic Robotic Manipulationcited by 11
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Citing papers per year: 2026: 24.
24 papers.
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- 2026A Pragmatic VLA Foundation Modelcited by 97
- 2026From Foundation to Application: Improving VLA Models in Practicecited by 25
- 2026Evo-Depth: A Lightweight Depth-Enhanced Vision-Language-Action Modelcited by 13
- 2026WildDet3D: Scaling Promptable 3D Detection in the Wildcited by 12
- 2026MetricAnything: Scaling Metric Depth Pretraining with Noisy Heterogeneous Sourcescited by 10
- 2026Vision as Unified Multimodal Generationcited by 5
- 2026AoE: Always-on Egocentric Human Video Collection for Embodied AIcited by 3
- 2026Towards Consistent Video Geometry Estimationcited by 3
- 20263D HAMSTER: Bridging Planning and Control in Hierarchical Vision Language Action Models through 3D Trajectory Guidancecited by 3
- 2026EvoScene-VLA: Evolving Scene Beliefs Inside the Action Decoder for Chunked Robot Controlcited by 2
- 2026Lucida: Parse, Generate, and Place for Composable Real-to-Sim Scene Modelingcited by 2
- 2026GeoAlign: Beyond Semantics with State-Guided Spatial Alignment in VLA Modelscited by 1
12 more
- 2026SurroundNEXO: Ego-Centric Metric Bridging for Spatially Consistent Geometry in Autonomous Drivingcited by 1
- 2026PXDepth: Pixel-Space Modeling for Structure Preserving Monocular Depth Estimationcited by 1
- 2026Geometry-Aware Representation Denoising for Robust Multi-view 3D Reconstructioncited by 0
- 2026AFUN: Towards an Affordance Foundation Model for Functionality Understandingcited by 0
- 2026DarkVGGT: Seeing Through Darkness Using Thermal Geometry without Daylight Taxcited by 0
- 2026Streaming Neural Speech Codecs through Time-Invariant Representationscited by 0
- 2026Enhancing In-context Panoramic Generation via Geometric-aware Pretrainingcited by 0
- 2026V-Link: Recovering Lost Visual Representations in Action DiT for Vision-Language-Action Modelscited by 0
- 2026DepthEvidence: Unifying Metric Depth Prediction and Geometric Reasoning in Multimodal Language Modelscited by 0
- 2026FoundDSR: A Generalizable Foundation Model with Guided 2D Gaussian Splatting for Depth Super-Resolutioncited by 0
- 2026E-WAVE: Event-based Continuous Optical Flow via Warping-Aligned Visual Encodingcited by 0
- 2026F4R: Failure-Driven Recognition, Reconstruction, Refinement, and Redeployment for Continual Robot Self-Improvementcited by 0
- 2026F4R: Failure-Driven Recognition, Reconstruction, Refinement, and Redeployment for Continual Robot Self-Improvement28 Sep 2026
- 2026E-WAVE: Event-based Continuous Optical Flow via Warping-Aligned Visual Encoding28 Sep 2026
- 2026FoundDSR: A Generalizable Foundation Model with Guided 2D Gaussian Splatting for Depth Super-Resolution26 Sep 2026
- 2026DepthEvidence: Unifying Metric Depth Prediction and Geometric Reasoning in Multimodal Language Models25 Sep 2026
- 2026Lucida: Parse, Generate, and Place for Composable Real-to-Sim Scene Modeling31 Aug 2026
- 2026V-Link: Recovering Lost Visual Representations in Action DiT for Vision-Language-Action Models26 Aug 2026
- 2026PXDepth: Pixel-Space Modeling for Structure Preserving Monocular Depth Estimation17 Aug 2026
- 2026Enhancing In-context Panoramic Generation via Geometric-aware Pretraining9 Jul 2026
- 2026Vision as Unified Multimodal Generation7 Jul 2026
- 2026From Foundation to Application: Improving VLA Models in Practice7 Jul 2026
- 2026Streaming Neural Speech Codecs through Time-Invariant Representations6 Jul 2026
- 20263D HAMSTER: Bridging Planning and Control in Hierarchical Vision Language Action Models through 3D Trajectory Guidance30 Jun 2026
12 more
- 2026SurroundNEXO: Ego-Centric Metric Bridging for Spatially Consistent Geometry in Autonomous Driving15 Jun 2026
- 2026DarkVGGT: Seeing Through Darkness Using Thermal Geometry without Daylight Tax9 Jun 2026
- 2026GeoAlign: Beyond Semantics with State-Guided Spatial Alignment in VLA Models2 Jun 2026
- 2026AFUN: Towards an Affordance Foundation Model for Functionality Understanding1 Jun 2026
- 2026Towards Consistent Video Geometry Estimation28 May 2026
- 2026Geometry-Aware Representation Denoising for Robust Multi-view 3D Reconstruction25 May 2026
- 2026EvoScene-VLA: Evolving Scene Beliefs Inside the Action Decoder for Chunked Robot Control21 May 2026
- 2026Evo-Depth: A Lightweight Depth-Enhanced Vision-Language-Action Model14 May 2026
- 2026WildDet3D: Scaling Promptable 3D Detection in the Wild9 Apr 2026
- 2026AoE: Always-on Egocentric Human Video Collection for Embodied AI27 Feb 2026
- 2026MetricAnything: Scaling Metric Depth Pretraining with Noisy Heterogeneous Sources29 Jan 2026
- 2026A Pragmatic VLA Foundation Model26 Jan 2026
- 2026A Pragmatic VLA Foundation Modelcited by 97
- 2026From Foundation to Application: Improving VLA Models in Practicecited by 25
- 2026Evo-Depth: A Lightweight Depth-Enhanced Vision-Language-Action Modelcited by 13
- 20263D HAMSTER: Bridging Planning and Control in Hierarchical Vision Language Action Models through 3D Trajectory Guidancecited by 3
- 2026EvoScene-VLA: Evolving Scene Beliefs Inside the Action Decoder for Chunked Robot Controlcited by 2
- 2026GeoAlign: Beyond Semantics with State-Guided Spatial Alignment in VLA Modelscited by 1
- 2026V-Link: Recovering Lost Visual Representations in Action DiT for Vision-Language-Action Modelscited by 0
- 2026V-Link: Recovering Lost Visual Representations in Action DiT for Vision-Language-Action Models26 Aug 2026
- 2026From Foundation to Application: Improving VLA Models in Practice7 Jul 2026
- 20263D HAMSTER: Bridging Planning and Control in Hierarchical Vision Language Action Models through 3D Trajectory Guidance30 Jun 2026
- 2026GeoAlign: Beyond Semantics with State-Guided Spatial Alignment in VLA Models2 Jun 2026
- 2026EvoScene-VLA: Evolving Scene Beliefs Inside the Action Decoder for Chunked Robot Control21 May 2026
- 2026Evo-Depth: A Lightweight Depth-Enhanced Vision-Language-Action Model14 May 2026
- 2026A Pragmatic VLA Foundation Model26 Jan 2026
- 2026WildDet3D: Scaling Promptable 3D Detection in the Wildcited by 12
- 2026MetricAnything: Scaling Metric Depth Pretraining with Noisy Heterogeneous Sourcescited by 10
- 2026Vision as Unified Multimodal Generationcited by 5
- 2026AoE: Always-on Egocentric Human Video Collection for Embodied AIcited by 3
- 2026Towards Consistent Video Geometry Estimationcited by 3
- 2026Lucida: Parse, Generate, and Place for Composable Real-to-Sim Scene Modelingcited by 2
- 2026SurroundNEXO: Ego-Centric Metric Bridging for Spatially Consistent Geometry in Autonomous Drivingcited by 1
- 2026PXDepth: Pixel-Space Modeling for Structure Preserving Monocular Depth Estimationcited by 1
- 2026Geometry-Aware Representation Denoising for Robust Multi-view 3D Reconstructioncited by 0
- 2026AFUN: Towards an Affordance Foundation Model for Functionality Understandingcited by 0
- 2026DarkVGGT: Seeing Through Darkness Using Thermal Geometry without Daylight Taxcited by 0
- 2026Streaming Neural Speech Codecs through Time-Invariant Representationscited by 0
12 most cited of 16 All 16 (JSON)
- 2026F4R: Failure-Driven Recognition, Reconstruction, Refinement, and Redeployment for Continual Robot Self-Improvement28 Sep 2026
- 2026E-WAVE: Event-based Continuous Optical Flow via Warping-Aligned Visual Encoding28 Sep 2026
- 2026FoundDSR: A Generalizable Foundation Model with Guided 2D Gaussian Splatting for Depth Super-Resolution26 Sep 2026
- 2026Lucida: Parse, Generate, and Place for Composable Real-to-Sim Scene Modeling31 Aug 2026
- 2026PXDepth: Pixel-Space Modeling for Structure Preserving Monocular Depth Estimation17 Aug 2026
- 2026Enhancing In-context Panoramic Generation via Geometric-aware Pretraining9 Jul 2026
- 2026Vision as Unified Multimodal Generation7 Jul 2026
- 2026Streaming Neural Speech Codecs through Time-Invariant Representations6 Jul 2026
- 2026SurroundNEXO: Ego-Centric Metric Bridging for Spatially Consistent Geometry in Autonomous Driving15 Jun 2026
- 2026DarkVGGT: Seeing Through Darkness Using Thermal Geometry without Daylight Tax9 Jun 2026
- 2026AFUN: Towards an Affordance Foundation Model for Functionality Understanding1 Jun 2026
- 2026Towards Consistent Video Geometry Estimation28 May 2026
12 newest of 16 All 16 (JSON)