mlsanityData to 14 Oct 2026

Code Like Humans: A Multi-Agent Solution for Medical Coding

arXiv 2509.05378 ↗First posted 4 Sep 2025cs.AI cs.MAcited by 11

On the map: LLM agents and tool use → Medical and scientific domain agents

Abstract (arXiv)

In medical coding, experts map unstructured clinical notes to alphanumeric codes for diagnoses and procedures. We introduce Code Like Humans: a new agentic framework for medical coding with large language models. It implements official coding guidelines for human experts, and it is the first solution that can support the full ICD-10 coding system (+70K labels). It achieves the best performance to date on rare diagnosis codes (fine-tuned discriminative classifiers retain an advantage for high-frequency codes, to which they are limited). Towards future work, we also contribute an analysis of system performance and identify its `blind spots' (codes that are systematically undercoded).

Key facts. Cited by 11 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026). Placed in Medical and scientific domain agents, one of 16 directions in LLM agents and tool use. Builds on 26 of its 55 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 4 Sep 2025.

Builds on

26 of 55 references.

References · 26

  1. 2018BERT: Pre-training of Deep Bidirectional Transformers for Language Understandingcited by 40,399
  2. 2023Efficient Memory Management for Large Language Model Serving with PagedAttentioncited by 5,944
  3. 2023Self-Refine: Iterative Refinement with Self-Feedbackcited by 3,442
  4. 2024Scaling LLM Test-Time Compute Optimally can be More Effective than Scaling Model Parameterscited by 1,986
  5. 2024RULER: What's the Real Context Size of Your Long-Context Language Models?cited by 1,346
  6. 2025s1: Simple test-time scalingcited by 1,341
  7. 2025Reasoning Models Don't Always Say What They Thinkcited by 415
  8. 2025The Illusion of Thinking: Understanding the Strengths and Limitations of Reasoning Models via the Lens of Problem Complexitycited by 302
  9. 2024Long-context LLMs Struggle with Long In-context Learningcited by 286
  10. 2018Explainable Prediction of Medical Codes from Clinical Textcited by 234
  11. 2024One Thousand and One Pairs: A "novel" challenge for long-context language modelscited by 80
  12. 2019ICD Coding from Clinical Text Using Multi-Filter Residual Convolutional Neural Networkcited by 73
14 more
  1. 2022Code Synonyms Do Matter: Multiple Synonyms Matching Network for Automatic ICD Codingcited by 53
  2. 2023Self-Verification Improves Few-Shot Clinical Information Extractioncited by 52
  3. 2023Automated Medical Coding on MIMIC-III and MIMIC-IV: A Critical Review and Replicability Studycited by 49
  4. 2020A Label Attention Model for ICD Coding from Clinical Textcited by 48
  5. 2020Explainable Automated Coding of Clinical Notes using Hierarchical Label-wise Attention Networks and Label Embedding Initialisationcited by 38
  6. 2025Position: Stop Anthropomorphizing Intermediate Tokens as Reasoning/Thinking Traces!cited by 37
  7. 2022Automated Clinical Coding: What, Why, and Where We Are?cited by 33
  8. 2021Towards BERT-based Automatic ICD Coding: Limitations and Opportunitiescited by 25
  9. 2021Read, Attend, and Code: Pushing the Limits of Medical Codes Prediction from Clinical Notes by Machinescited by 23
  10. 2023MDACE: MIMIC Documents Annotated with Code Evidencecited by 19
  11. 2025One ruler to measure them all: Benchmarking multilingual long-context language modelscited by 19
  12. 2022Multi-label Few-shot ICD Coding as Autoregressive Generation with Promptcited by 17
  13. 2020Experimental Evaluation and Development of a Silver-Standard for the MIMIC-III Clinical Coding Datasetcited by 15
  14. 2024Can GPT-3.5 Generate and Code Discharge Summaries?cited by 13

Built on by

Cited by year (2026 to 14 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2025: 1; 2026: 10.

11 papers.

  1. 2026SkillJect: Effectively Automating Skill-Based Prompt Injection for Skill-Enabled Agentscited by 25
  2. 2026A medical coding language model trained on clinical narratives from a population-wide cohort of 1.8 million patientscited by 1
  3. 2026Symphony for Medical Coding: A Next-Generation Agentic System for Scalable and Explainable Medical Codingcited by 1
  4. 2026CTI2TTP: Evidence-Grounded TTP Extraction from Cyber Threat Intelligence via Diverge-then-Converge Verificationcited by 1
  5. 2025LTR-ICD: A Ranking-Aware Framework for Automatic ICD Codingcited by 0
  6. 2026From Documents to Spans: Span-Centric Learning for LLM-based Explainable Medical Codingcited by 0
  7. 2026Enhancing LLM Medical Coding with Structured External Knowledgecited by 0
  8. 2026CoLa-ICD: A Knowledge-Enhanced Framework for Long-Tail Automated Medical Codingcited by 0
  9. 2026Understanding the Limits of Agentic ICD Codingcited by 0
  10. 2026LearnActCoder: Role-Aware Error Memory for Adaptive Clinical Coding Agentscited by 0
  11. 2026Beyond ICD Codes: Semantic IDs for Generative Medical Codingcited by 0

Similar, not cited

Close in wording, no citation either way

  1. 2024Exploring LLM Multi-Agents for ICD Coding
  2. 2025MedDCR: Learning to Design Agentic Workflows for Medical Coding
  3. 2026Training a Large Language Model for Medical Coding Using Privacy-Preserving Synthetic Clinical Data
  4. 2026CodeClinic: Evaluating Automation of Coding Skills for Clinical Reasoning Agents
  5. 2026From Clinical Intent to Clinical Model: Autonomous Coding-Agents for Clinician-driven AI Development
  6. 2025An Agentic AI System for Multi-Framework Communication Coding
  7. 2024Beyond Label Attention: Transparency in Language Models for Automated Medical Coding via Dictionary Learning
  8. 2025Learning to Be A Doctor: Searching for Effective Medical Agent Architectures