Taiwan LLM: Bridging the Linguistic Divide with a Culturally Aligned Language Model
On the map: LLM alignment / RLHF / preference optimisation → Human values and AI feedback alignment
Abstract (arXiv)
In the realm of language models, the nuanced linguistic and cultural intricacies of Traditional Chinese, as spoken in Taiwan, have been largely overlooked. This paper introduces Taiwan LLM, a pioneering Large Language Model that specifically caters to the Traditional Chinese language, with a focus on the variant used in Taiwan. Leveraging a comprehensive pretraining corpus and instruction-finetuning datasets, we have developed a model that not only understands the complexities of Traditional Chinese but also embodies the cultural context of Taiwan. Taiwan LLM represents the first of its kind, a model that is not only linguistically accurate but also culturally resonant with its user base. Our evaluations demonstrate that Taiwan LLM achieves superior performance in understanding and generating Traditional Chinese text, outperforming existing models that are predominantly trained on Simplified Chinese or English. The open-source release of Taiwan LLM invites collaboration and further innovation, ensuring that the linguistic diversity of Chinese speakers is embraced and well-served. The model, datasets, and further resources are made publicly available to foster ongoing research and development in this field.
Key facts. Cited by 29 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Placed in Human values and AI feedback alignment, one of 10 directions in LLM alignment / RLHF / preference optimisation. Builds on 12 of its 22 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 29 Nov 2023.
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12 of 22 references.
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Other references · 11
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Citing papers per year: 2023: 1; 2024: 13; 2025: 10; 2026: 5.
29 papers.
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- 2024Survey of Cultural Awareness in Language Models: Text and Beyondcited by 101
- 2024All Languages Matter: Evaluating LMMs on Culturally Diverse 100 Languagescited by 55
- 2024CultureLLM: Incorporating Cultural Differences into Large Language Modelscited by 49
- 2025CultureVLM: Characterizing and Improving Cultural Understanding of Vision-Language Models for over 100 Countriescited by 40
- 2024CulturePark: Boosting Cross-cultural Understanding in Large Language Modelscited by 24
- 2023PersianLLaMA: Towards Building First Persian Large Language Modelcited by 14
- 2024An Improved Traditional Chinese Evaluation Suite for Foundation Modelcited by 10
- 2024Sabi'a-2: A New Generation of Portuguese Large Language Modelscited by 10
- 2024CRAFT: Extracting and Tuning Cultural Instructions from the Wildcited by 8
- 2025Characterizing Bias: Benchmarking Large Language Models in Simplified versus Traditional Chinesecited by 6
- 2024Analyzing Nobel Prize Literature with Large Language Modelscited by 4
- 2025The Breeze 2 Herd of Models: Traditional Chinese LLMs Based on Llama with Vision-Aware and Function-Calling Capabilitiescited by 4
17 more
- 2025Can LLMs Grasp Implicit Cultural Values? Benchmarking LLMs' Cultural Intelligence with CQ-Benchcited by 3
- 2024Measuring Taiwanese Mandarin Language Understandingcited by 2
- 2025Knowledge Retrieval Based on Generative AIcited by 2
- 2025Continual Pre-Training is (not) What You Need in Domain Adaptioncited by 2
- 2025Do Large Language Models Know Folktales? A Case Study of Yokai in Japanese Folktalescited by 2
- 2024Exploring Cross-lingual Latent Transplantation: Mutual Opportunities and Open Challengescited by 1
- 2025Measuring Hong Kong Massive Multi-Task Language Understandingcited by 1
- 2025Towards culturally-appropriate conversational AI for health in the majority world: An exploratory study with citizens and professionals in Latin Americacited by 1
- 2026TWGuard: A Case Study of LLM Safety Guardrails for Localized Linguistic Contextscited by 1
- 2026TW-LegalBench: Measuring Taiwanese Legal Understandingcited by 1
- 2024Hyacinth6B: A large language model for Traditional Chinesecited by 0
- 2024Bailong: Bilingual Transfer Learning based on QLoRA and Zip-tie Embeddingcited by 0
- 2024GPT-4's One-Dimensional Mapping of Morality: How the Accuracy of Country-Estimates Depends on Moral Domaincited by 0
- 2025Efficient Training of Robust Traditional Chinese LLaMA-1B on a Single Consumer GPU: Continual Pre-training, SFT, and DPOcited by 0
- 2026Taiwan Safety Benchmark and Breeze Guard: Toward Trustworthy AI for Taiwanese Mandarincited by 0
- 2026BlueMagpie-TTS: A Token-Efficient Tokenizer, Language Model, and TTS for Taiwanese-Accent Code-Switching Speechcited by 0
- 2026CantoneseLLM v2: Reasoning in a Low-Resource Languagecited by 0
- 2026CantoneseLLM v2: Reasoning in a Low-Resource Language7 Sep 2026
- 2026BlueMagpie-TTS: A Token-Efficient Tokenizer, Language Model, and TTS for Taiwanese-Accent Code-Switching Speech7 Jul 2026
- 2026TW-LegalBench: Measuring Taiwanese Legal Understanding17 Jun 2026
- 2026TWGuard: A Case Study of LLM Safety Guardrails for Localized Linguistic Contexts17 Apr 2026
- 2026Taiwan Safety Benchmark and Breeze Guard: Toward Trustworthy AI for Taiwanese Mandarin7 Mar 2026
- 2025Efficient Training of Robust Traditional Chinese LLaMA-1B on a Single Consumer GPU: Continual Pre-training, SFT, and DPO2 Oct 2025
- 2025Towards culturally-appropriate conversational AI for health in the majority world: An exploratory study with citizens and professionals in Latin America2 Jul 2025
- 2025Do Large Language Models Know Folktales? A Case Study of Yokai in Japanese Folktales4 Jun 2025
- 2025Characterizing Bias: Benchmarking Large Language Models in Simplified versus Traditional Chinese28 May 2025
- 2025Measuring Hong Kong Massive Multi-Task Language Understanding4 May 2025
- 2025Continual Pre-Training is (not) What You Need in Domain Adaption18 Apr 2025
- 2025Can LLMs Grasp Implicit Cultural Values? Benchmarking LLMs' Cultural Intelligence with CQ-Bench1 Apr 2025
17 more
- 2025The Breeze 2 Herd of Models: Traditional Chinese LLMs Based on Llama with Vision-Aware and Function-Calling Capabilities23 Jan 2025
- 2025Knowledge Retrieval Based on Generative AI8 Jan 2025
- 2025CultureVLM: Characterizing and Improving Cultural Understanding of Vision-Language Models for over 100 Countries2 Jan 2025
- 2024Exploring Cross-lingual Latent Transplantation: Mutual Opportunities and Open Challenges17 Dec 2024
- 2024All Languages Matter: Evaluating LMMs on Culturally Diverse 100 Languages25 Nov 2024
- 2024Survey of Cultural Awareness in Language Models: Text and Beyond30 Oct 2024
- 2024Analyzing Nobel Prize Literature with Large Language Models22 Oct 2024
- 2024GPT-4's One-Dimensional Mapping of Morality: How the Accuracy of Country-Estimates Depends on Moral Domain5 Jun 2024
- 2024CulturePark: Boosting Cross-cultural Understanding in Large Language Models24 May 2024
- 2024CRAFT: Extracting and Tuning Cultural Instructions from the Wild6 May 2024
- 2024Bailong: Bilingual Transfer Learning based on QLoRA and Zip-tie Embedding1 Apr 2024
- 2024Measuring Taiwanese Mandarin Language Understanding29 Mar 2024
- 2024Hyacinth6B: A large language model for Traditional Chinese20 Mar 2024
- 2024Sabi'a-2: A New Generation of Portuguese Large Language Models14 Mar 2024
- 2024An Improved Traditional Chinese Evaluation Suite for Foundation Model4 Mar 2024
- 2024CultureLLM: Incorporating Cultural Differences into Large Language Models9 Feb 2024
- 2023PersianLLaMA: Towards Building First Persian Large Language Model25 Dec 2023
- 2026CantoneseLLM v2: Reasoning in a Low-Resource Languagecited by 0
- 2026CantoneseLLM v2: Reasoning in a Low-Resource Language7 Sep 2026
- 2025Knowledge Retrieval Based on Generative AIcited by 2
- 2025Knowledge Retrieval Based on Generative AI8 Jan 2025
- 2024Survey of Cultural Awareness in Language Models: Text and Beyondcited by 101
- 2024CultureLLM: Incorporating Cultural Differences into Large Language Modelscited by 49
- 2024CulturePark: Boosting Cross-cultural Understanding in Large Language Modelscited by 24
- 2023PersianLLaMA: Towards Building First Persian Large Language Modelcited by 14
- 2024An Improved Traditional Chinese Evaluation Suite for Foundation Modelcited by 10
- 2024Sabi'a-2: A New Generation of Portuguese Large Language Modelscited by 10
- 2024CRAFT: Extracting and Tuning Cultural Instructions from the Wildcited by 8
- 2025Characterizing Bias: Benchmarking Large Language Models in Simplified versus Traditional Chinesecited by 6
- 2024Analyzing Nobel Prize Literature with Large Language Modelscited by 4
- 2025Can LLMs Grasp Implicit Cultural Values? Benchmarking LLMs' Cultural Intelligence with CQ-Benchcited by 3
- 2024Measuring Taiwanese Mandarin Language Understandingcited by 2
- 2025Continual Pre-Training is (not) What You Need in Domain Adaptioncited by 2
12 most cited of 22 All 22 (JSON)
- 2026BlueMagpie-TTS: A Token-Efficient Tokenizer, Language Model, and TTS for Taiwanese-Accent Code-Switching Speech7 Jul 2026
- 2026TW-LegalBench: Measuring Taiwanese Legal Understanding17 Jun 2026
- 2026Taiwan Safety Benchmark and Breeze Guard: Toward Trustworthy AI for Taiwanese Mandarin7 Mar 2026
- 2025Towards culturally-appropriate conversational AI for health in the majority world: An exploratory study with citizens and professionals in Latin America2 Jul 2025
- 2025Do Large Language Models Know Folktales? A Case Study of Yokai in Japanese Folktales4 Jun 2025
- 2025Characterizing Bias: Benchmarking Large Language Models in Simplified versus Traditional Chinese28 May 2025
- 2025Measuring Hong Kong Massive Multi-Task Language Understanding4 May 2025
- 2025Continual Pre-Training is (not) What You Need in Domain Adaption18 Apr 2025
- 2025Can LLMs Grasp Implicit Cultural Values? Benchmarking LLMs' Cultural Intelligence with CQ-Bench1 Apr 2025
- 2024Exploring Cross-lingual Latent Transplantation: Mutual Opportunities and Open Challenges17 Dec 2024
- 2024Survey of Cultural Awareness in Language Models: Text and Beyond30 Oct 2024
- 2024Analyzing Nobel Prize Literature with Large Language Models22 Oct 2024
12 newest of 22 All 22 (JSON)
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