mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

Taiwan LLM: Bridging the Linguistic Divide with a Culturally Aligned Language Model

arXiv 2311.17487 ↗First posted 29 Nov 2023cs.CL cs.AIcited by 29

On the map: LLM alignment / RLHF / preference optimisation → Human values and AI feedback alignment

Abstract (arXiv)

In the realm of language models, the nuanced linguistic and cultural intricacies of Traditional Chinese, as spoken in Taiwan, have been largely overlooked. This paper introduces Taiwan LLM, a pioneering Large Language Model that specifically caters to the Traditional Chinese language, with a focus on the variant used in Taiwan. Leveraging a comprehensive pretraining corpus and instruction-finetuning datasets, we have developed a model that not only understands the complexities of Traditional Chinese but also embodies the cultural context of Taiwan. Taiwan LLM represents the first of its kind, a model that is not only linguistically accurate but also culturally resonant with its user base. Our evaluations demonstrate that Taiwan LLM achieves superior performance in understanding and generating Traditional Chinese text, outperforming existing models that are predominantly trained on Simplified Chinese or English. The open-source release of Taiwan LLM invites collaboration and further innovation, ensuring that the linguistic diversity of Chinese speakers is embraced and well-served. The model, datasets, and further resources are made publicly available to foster ongoing research and development in this field.

Key facts. Cited by 29 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Placed in Human values and AI feedback alignment, one of 10 directions in LLM alignment / RLHF / preference optimisation. Builds on 12 of its 22 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 29 Nov 2023.

Builds on

12 of 22 references.

Closest ancestors · 1

Same direction, newest first

  1. 2023AlpacaFarm: A Simulation Framework for Methods that Learn from Human Feedback22 May

Other references · 11

  1. 2017Proximal Policy Optimization Algorithmscited by 14,441
  2. 2023Judging LLM-as-a-Judge with MT-Bench and Chatbot Arenacited by 8,393
  3. 2022Self-Instruct: Aligning Language Models with Self-Generated Instructionscited by 2,674
  4. 2023FlashAttention-2: Faster Attention with Better Parallelism and Work Partitioningcited by 2,551
  5. 2023WizardLM: Empowering large pre-trained language models to follow complex instructionscited by 1,116
  6. 2022Super-NaturalInstructions: Generalization via Declarative Instructions on 1600+ NLP Taskscited by 858
  7. 2023The RefinedWeb Dataset for Falcon LLM: Outperforming Curated Corpora with Web Data, and Web Data Onlycited by 755
  8. 2023The Flan Collection: Designing Data and Methods for Effective Instruction Tuningcited by 734
  9. 2023OpenAssistant Conversations -- Democratizing Large Language Model Alignmentcited by 712
  10. 2023Chain-of-Thought Hub: A Continuous Effort to Measure Large Language Models' Reasoning Performancecited by 102
  11. 2023Advancing the Evaluation of Traditional Chinese Language Models: Towards a Comprehensive Benchmark Suitecited by 13

Built on by

Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2023: 1; 2024: 13; 2025: 10; 2026: 5.

29 papers.

Sort:

By area:

  1. 2024Survey of Cultural Awareness in Language Models: Text and Beyondcited by 101
  2. 2024All Languages Matter: Evaluating LMMs on Culturally Diverse 100 Languagescited by 55
  3. 2024CultureLLM: Incorporating Cultural Differences into Large Language Modelscited by 49
  4. 2025CultureVLM: Characterizing and Improving Cultural Understanding of Vision-Language Models for over 100 Countriescited by 40
  5. 2024CulturePark: Boosting Cross-cultural Understanding in Large Language Modelscited by 24
  6. 2023PersianLLaMA: Towards Building First Persian Large Language Modelcited by 14
  7. 2024An Improved Traditional Chinese Evaluation Suite for Foundation Modelcited by 10
  8. 2024Sabi'a-2: A New Generation of Portuguese Large Language Modelscited by 10
  9. 2024CRAFT: Extracting and Tuning Cultural Instructions from the Wildcited by 8
  10. 2025Characterizing Bias: Benchmarking Large Language Models in Simplified versus Traditional Chinesecited by 6
  11. 2024Analyzing Nobel Prize Literature with Large Language Modelscited by 4
  12. 2025The Breeze 2 Herd of Models: Traditional Chinese LLMs Based on Llama with Vision-Aware and Function-Calling Capabilitiescited by 4
17 more
  1. 2025Can LLMs Grasp Implicit Cultural Values? Benchmarking LLMs' Cultural Intelligence with CQ-Benchcited by 3
  2. 2024Measuring Taiwanese Mandarin Language Understandingcited by 2
  3. 2025Knowledge Retrieval Based on Generative AIcited by 2
  4. 2025Continual Pre-Training is (not) What You Need in Domain Adaptioncited by 2
  5. 2025Do Large Language Models Know Folktales? A Case Study of Yokai in Japanese Folktalescited by 2
  6. 2024Exploring Cross-lingual Latent Transplantation: Mutual Opportunities and Open Challengescited by 1
  7. 2025Measuring Hong Kong Massive Multi-Task Language Understandingcited by 1
  8. 2025Towards culturally-appropriate conversational AI for health in the majority world: An exploratory study with citizens and professionals in Latin Americacited by 1
  9. 2026TWGuard: A Case Study of LLM Safety Guardrails for Localized Linguistic Contextscited by 1
  10. 2026TW-LegalBench: Measuring Taiwanese Legal Understandingcited by 1
  11. 2024Hyacinth6B: A large language model for Traditional Chinesecited by 0
  12. 2024Bailong: Bilingual Transfer Learning based on QLoRA and Zip-tie Embeddingcited by 0
  13. 2024GPT-4's One-Dimensional Mapping of Morality: How the Accuracy of Country-Estimates Depends on Moral Domaincited by 0
  14. 2025Efficient Training of Robust Traditional Chinese LLaMA-1B on a Single Consumer GPU: Continual Pre-training, SFT, and DPOcited by 0
  15. 2026Taiwan Safety Benchmark and Breeze Guard: Toward Trustworthy AI for Taiwanese Mandarincited by 0
  16. 2026BlueMagpie-TTS: A Token-Efficient Tokenizer, Language Model, and TTS for Taiwanese-Accent Code-Switching Speechcited by 0
  17. 2026CantoneseLLM v2: Reasoning in a Low-Resource Languagecited by 0

Similar, not cited

Close in wording, no citation either way

  1. 2023CDEval: A Benchmark for Measuring the Cultural Dimensions of Large Language Models
  2. 2025LaoBench: A Large-Scale Multidimensional Lao Benchmark for Large Language Models
  3. 2023Cultural Alignment in Large Language Models: An Explanatory Analysis Based on Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions
  4. 2025VisTW: Benchmarking Vision-Language Models for Traditional Chinese in Taiwan
  5. 2024MERaLiON-TextLLM: Cross-Lingual Understanding of Large Language Models in Chinese, Indonesian, Malay, and Singlish
  6. 2025Multilingual != Multicultural: Evaluating Gaps Between Multilingual Capabilities and Cultural Alignment in LLMs
  7. 2025NativQA Framework: Enabling LLMs and VLMs with Native, Local, and Everyday Knowledge
  8. 2023CMMLU: Measuring massive multitask language understanding in Chinese