Voice Conversion With Just Nearest Neighbors
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Abstract (arXiv)
Any-to-any voice conversion aims to transform source speech into a target voice with just a few examples of the target speaker as a reference. Recent methods produce convincing conversions, but at the cost of increased complexity -- making results difficult to reproduce and build on. Instead, we keep it simple. We propose k-nearest neighbors voice conversion (kNN-VC): a straightforward yet effective method for any-to-any conversion. First, we extract self-supervised representations of the source and reference speech. To convert to the target speaker, we replace each frame of the source representation with its nearest neighbor in the reference. Finally, a pretrained vocoder synthesizes audio from the converted representation. Objective and subjective evaluations show that kNN-VC improves speaker similarity with similar intelligibility scores to existing methods. Code, samples, trained models: https://bshall.github.io/knn-vc
Key facts. Cited by 68 papers in the map (data through 14 Oct 2026). Builds on 16 of its 23 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 30 May 2023.
Builds on
16 of 23 references.
References · 16
- 2022Robust Speech Recognition via Large-Scale Weak Supervisioncited by 4,057
- 2020wav2vec 2.0: A Framework for Self-Supervised Learning of Speech Representationscited by 3,905
- 2021WavLM: Large-Scale Self-Supervised Pre-Training for Full Stack Speech Processingcited by 1,657
- 2020HiFi-GAN: Generative Adversarial Networks for Efficient and High Fidelity Speech Synthesiscited by 1,154
- 2021Layer-wise Analysis of a Self-supervised Speech Representation Modelcited by 298
- 2021YourTTS: Towards Zero-Shot Multi-Speaker TTS and Zero-Shot Voice Conversion for everyonecited by 278
- 2019AUTOVC: Zero-Shot Voice Style Transfer with Only Autoencoder Losscited by 192
- 2020An Overview of Voice Conversion and its Challenges: From Statistical Modeling to Deep Learningcited by 112
- 2019One-shot Voice Conversion by Separating Speaker and Content Representations with Instance Normalizationcited by 82
- 2022FreeVC: Towards High-Quality Text-Free One-Shot Voice Conversioncited by 80
- 2020Voice Conversion Challenge 2020: Intra-lingual semi-parallel and cross-lingual voice conversioncited by 75
- 2021VQMIVC: Vector Quantization and Mutual Information-Based Unsupervised Speech Representation Disentanglement for One-shot Voice Conversioncited by 64
4 more
- 2021A Comparison of Discrete and Soft Speech Units for Improved Voice Conversioncited by 61
- 2020Any-to-Many Voice Conversion with Location-Relative Sequence-to-Sequence Modelingcited by 42
- 2022On the Utility of Self-supervised Models for Prosody-related Taskscited by 42
- 2022Self-supervised language learning from raw audio: Lessons from the Zero Resource Speech Challengecited by 34
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Citing papers per year: 2023: 3; 2024: 15; 2025: 30; 2026: 20.
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- 2024Zero-shot Voice Conversion with Diffusion Transformerscited by 43
- 2025Recent Advances in Discrete Speech Tokens: A Reviewcited by 43
- 2025LLaSE-G1: Incentivizing Generalization Capability for LLaMA-based Speech Enhancementcited by 19
- 2025FocalCodec: Low-Bitrate Speech Coding via Focal Modulation Networkscited by 18
- 2024Privacy versus Emotion Preservation Trade-offs in Emotion-Preserving Speaker Anonymizationcited by 10
- 2024TSELM: Target Speaker Extraction using Discrete Tokens and Language Modelscited by 10
- 2024HLTCOE JHU Submission to the Voice Privacy Challenge 2024cited by 10
- 2023Phoneme Hallucinator: One-shot Voice Conversion via Set Expansioncited by 9
- 2024Estimating the Completeness of Discrete Speech Unitscited by 9
- 2024Fake Artificial Intelligence Generated Contents (FAIGC): A Survey of Theories, Detection Methods, and Opportunitiescited by 8
- 2026The Third VoicePrivacy Challenge: Preserving Emotional Expressiveness and Linguistic Content in Voice Anonymizationcited by 8
- 2025Flow-SLM: Joint Learning of Linguistic and Acoustic Information for Spoken Language Modelingcited by 7
38 more
- 2025NADI 2025: The First Multidialectal Arabic Speech Processing Shared Taskcited by 7
- 2024vec2wav 2.0: Advancing Voice Conversion via Discrete Token Vocoderscited by 6
- 2024Anonymising Elderly and Pathological Speech: Voice Conversion Using DDSP and Query-by-Examplecited by 5
- 2025Unsupervised Rhythm and Voice Conversion of Dysarthric to Healthy Speech for ASRcited by 5
- 2025Children's Voice Privacy: First Steps And Emerging Challengescited by 5
- 2023Voice Conversion for Stuttered Speech, Instruments, Unseen Languages and Textually Described Voicescited by 4
- 2024Optimal Transport Maps are Good Voice Converterscited by 4
- 2025Speech Recognition for Automatically Assessing Afrikaans and isiXhosa Preschool Oral Narrativescited by 4
- 2025ArVoice: A Multi-Speaker Dataset for Arabic Speech Synthesiscited by 4
- 2026Self Voice Conversion as an Attack against Neural Audio Watermarkingcited by 4
- 2026Beyond Fixed Frames: Dynamic Character-Aligned Speech Tokenizationcited by 4
- 2024ELP-Adapters: Parameter Efficient Adapter Tuning for Various Speech Processing Taskscited by 3
- 2024kNN Retrieval for Simple and Effective Zero-Shot Multi-speaker Text-to-Speechcited by 3
- 2025Can Diffusion Models Disentangle? A Theoretical Perspectivecited by 3
- 2025LinearVC: Linear transformations of self-supervised features through the lens of voice conversioncited by 3
- 2026AFSS: Artifact-Focused Self-Synthesis for Mitigating Bias in Audio Deepfake Detectioncited by 3
- 2024Text-to-Speech for Unseen Speakers via Low-Complexity Discrete Unit-Based Frame Selectioncited by 2
- 2025EZ-VC: Easy Zero-shot Any-to-Any Voice Conversioncited by 2
- 2025Towards Better Disentanglement in Non-Autoregressive Zero-Shot Expressive Voice Conversioncited by 2
- 2025Training-Free Voice Conversion with Factorized Optimal Transportcited by 2
- 2025UniCoM: A Universal Code-Switching Speech Generatorcited by 2
- 2026Self-supervised Speech Comparison for L2 Phone, Rhythm, and Intonation Scoringcited by 2
- 2024D-CAPTCHA++: A Study of Resilience of Deepfake CAPTCHA under Transferable Imperceptible Adversarial Attackcited by 1
- 2024Improving Voice Quality in Speech Anonymization With Just Perception-Informed Lossescited by 1
- 2024QR-VC: Leveraging Quantization Residuals for Linear Disentanglement in Zero-Shot Voice Conversioncited by 1
- 2025AdaptVC: High Quality Voice Conversion with Adaptive Learningcited by 1
- 2025kNN-SVC: Robust Zero-Shot Singing Voice Conversion with Additive Synthesis and Concatenation Smoothness Optimizationcited by 1
- 2025Discrete Optimal Transport and Voice Conversioncited by 1
- 2025Miipher-2: A Universal Speech Restoration Model for Million-Hour Scale Data Restorationcited by 1
- 2025XMAD-Bench: Cross-Domain Multilingual Audio Deepfake Benchmarkcited by 1
- 2025Unsupervised Rhythm and Voice Conversion to Improve ASR on Dysarthric Speechcited by 1
- 2025CO-VADA: A Confidence-Oriented Voice Augmentation Debiasing Approach for Fair Speech Emotion Recognitioncited by 1
- 2025SEF-MK: Speaker-Embedding-Free Voice Anonymization through Multi-k-means Quantizationcited by 1
- 2025Provable Speech Attributes Conversion via Latent Independencecited by 1
- 2026Interpreting Speaker Characteristics in the Dimensions of Self-Supervised Speech Featurescited by 1
- 2026WavSLM: Single-Stream Speech Language Modeling via WavLM Distillationcited by 1
- 2026DAST: A Dual-Stream Voice Anonymization Attacker with Staged Trainingcited by 1
- 2023Stylebook: Content-Dependent Speaking Style Modeling for Any-to-Any Voice Conversion using Only Speech Datacited by 0
50 most cited of 68 All 68 (JSON)
- 2026Vocal Intensity Conversion with Continuous SPL Control via Adversarial Training9 Oct 2026
- 2026InterBias-SV: Compound Conditions in Speaker Verification29 Sep 2026
- 2026A Comprehensive Study of Content Representations for Speech Synthesis25 Sep 2026
- 2026NADI 2026: The Second Multidialectal Arabic Speech Processing Shared Task22 Sep 2026
- 2026Understanding Hyperspherical Geometry of ECAPA-TDNN Embedding and Its Impact on Zero-Shot Voice Conversion21 Sep 2026
- 2026Kraken: LLM-based Speech-to-Speech Translation via Low-bitrate VQ and Dual-path Source Conditioning11 Sep 2026
- 2026Self-supervised Speech Comparison for L2 Phone, Rhythm, and Intonation Scoring15 Jul 2026
- 2026GRAFT: Grafted Reference Audio for Fine-grained Pronunciation in Zero-shot Text-to-Speech2 Jul 2026
- 2026OLIVE: View-Augmented Latent Prediction with Waveform Reconstruction for Speech SSL29 Jun 2026
- 2026Synthetic Audio Generation Framework for Air Traffic Control Speech Recognition19 Jun 2026
- 2026From A to B to A: Palindromic Zero-Shot Voice Conversion with Non-Parallel Data7 Jun 2026
- 2026Beyond Waveform Robustness: Robust Feature-Vocoder Adversarial Attacks on Automatic Speech Recognition4 Jun 2026
38 more
- 2026DDSP-QbE++: Improving Speech Quality for Speech Anonymisation for Atypical Speech10 Apr 2026
- 2026AFSS: Artifact-Focused Self-Synthesis for Mitigating Bias in Audio Deepfake Detection27 Mar 2026
- 2026DAST: A Dual-Stream Voice Anonymization Attacker with Staged Training13 Mar 2026
- 2026WavSLM: Single-Stream Speech Language Modeling via WavLM Distillation5 Mar 2026
- 2026Interpreting Speaker Characteristics in the Dimensions of Self-Supervised Speech Features3 Mar 2026
- 2026Beyond Fixed Frames: Dynamic Character-Aligned Speech Tokenization30 Jan 2026
- 2026Self Voice Conversion as an Attack against Neural Audio Watermarking28 Jan 2026
- 2026The Third VoicePrivacy Challenge: Preserving Emotional Expressiveness and Linguistic Content in Voice Anonymization17 Jan 2026
- 2025Mispronunciation Detection and Diagnosis Without Model Training: A Retrieval-Based Approach25 Nov 2025
- 2025Provable Speech Attributes Conversion via Latent Independence6 Oct 2025
- 2025SAGE-LD: Towards Scalable and Generalizable End-to-End Language Diarization via Simulated Data Augmentation1 Oct 2025
- 2025Discrete optimal transport is a strong audio adversarial attack18 Sep 2025
- 2025NADI 2025: The First Multidialectal Arabic Speech Processing Shared Task2 Sep 2025
- 2025UniCoM: A Universal Code-Switching Speech Generator21 Aug 2025
- 2025Improving the Speaker Anonymization Evaluation's Robustness to Target Speakers with Adversarial Learning13 Aug 2025
- 2025Flow-SLM: Joint Learning of Linguistic and Acoustic Information for Spoken Language Modeling12 Aug 2025
- 2025SEF-MK: Speaker-Embedding-Free Voice Anonymization through Multi-k-means Quantization9 Aug 2025
- 2025Training-Free Voice Conversion with Factorized Optimal Transport11 Jun 2025
- 2025CO-VADA: A Confidence-Oriented Voice Augmentation Debiasing Approach for Fair Speech Emotion Recognition6 Jun 2025
- 2025Towards Better Disentanglement in Non-Autoregressive Zero-Shot Expressive Voice Conversion4 Jun 2025
- 2025Unsupervised Rhythm and Voice Conversion to Improve ASR on Dysarthric Speech2 Jun 2025
- 2025LinearVC: Linear transformations of self-supervised features through the lens of voice conversion2 Jun 2025
- 2025XMAD-Bench: Cross-Domain Multilingual Audio Deepfake Benchmark31 May 2025
- 2025Children's Voice Privacy: First Steps And Emerging Challenges30 May 2025
- 2025Voice Conversion Improves Cross-Domain Robustness for Spoken Arabic Dialect Identification30 May 2025
- 2025ArVoice: A Multi-Speaker Dataset for Arabic Speech Synthesis26 May 2025
- 2025EZ-VC: Easy Zero-shot Any-to-Any Voice Conversion22 May 2025
- 2025Miipher-2: A Universal Speech Restoration Model for Million-Hour Scale Data Restoration7 May 2025
- 2025Discrete Optimal Transport and Voice Conversion7 May 2025
- 2025USM-VC: Mitigating Timbre Leakage with Universal Semantic Mapping Residual Block for Voice Conversion11 Apr 2025
- 2025kNN-SVC: Robust Zero-Shot Singing Voice Conversion with Additive Synthesis and Concatenation Smoothness Optimization8 Apr 2025
- 2025Can Diffusion Models Disentangle? A Theoretical Perspective31 Mar 2025
- 2025LLaSE-G1: Incentivizing Generalization Capability for LLaMA-based Speech Enhancement1 Mar 2025
- 2025Recent Advances in Discrete Speech Tokens: A Review10 Feb 2025
- 2025FocalCodec: Low-Bitrate Speech Coding via Focal Modulation Networks6 Feb 2025
- 2025Unsupervised Rhythm and Voice Conversion of Dysarthric to Healthy Speech for ASR17 Jan 2025
- 2025Speech Recognition for Automatically Assessing Afrikaans and isiXhosa Preschool Oral Narratives11 Jan 2025
- 2025AdaptVC: High Quality Voice Conversion with Adaptive Learning2 Jan 2025
50 newest of 68 All 68 (JSON)
- 2025Recent Advances in Discrete Speech Tokens: A Reviewcited by 43
- 2025LLaSE-G1: Incentivizing Generalization Capability for LLaMA-based Speech Enhancementcited by 19
- 2025FocalCodec: Low-Bitrate Speech Coding via Focal Modulation Networkscited by 18
- 2024Privacy versus Emotion Preservation Trade-offs in Emotion-Preserving Speaker Anonymizationcited by 10
- 2024TSELM: Target Speaker Extraction using Discrete Tokens and Language Modelscited by 10
- 2024HLTCOE JHU Submission to the Voice Privacy Challenge 2024cited by 10
- 2023Phoneme Hallucinator: One-shot Voice Conversion via Set Expansioncited by 9
- 2024Estimating the Completeness of Discrete Speech Unitscited by 9
- 2026The Third VoicePrivacy Challenge: Preserving Emotional Expressiveness and Linguistic Content in Voice Anonymizationcited by 8
- 2025Flow-SLM: Joint Learning of Linguistic and Acoustic Information for Spoken Language Modelingcited by 7
- 2025NADI 2025: The First Multidialectal Arabic Speech Processing Shared Taskcited by 7
- 2024vec2wav 2.0: Advancing Voice Conversion via Discrete Token Vocoderscited by 6
12 most cited of 65 All 65 (JSON)
- 2026Vocal Intensity Conversion with Continuous SPL Control via Adversarial Training9 Oct 2026
- 2026InterBias-SV: Compound Conditions in Speaker Verification29 Sep 2026
- 2026A Comprehensive Study of Content Representations for Speech Synthesis25 Sep 2026
- 2026NADI 2026: The Second Multidialectal Arabic Speech Processing Shared Task22 Sep 2026
- 2026Understanding Hyperspherical Geometry of ECAPA-TDNN Embedding and Its Impact on Zero-Shot Voice Conversion21 Sep 2026
- 2026Kraken: LLM-based Speech-to-Speech Translation via Low-bitrate VQ and Dual-path Source Conditioning11 Sep 2026
- 2026Self-supervised Speech Comparison for L2 Phone, Rhythm, and Intonation Scoring15 Jul 2026
- 2026GRAFT: Grafted Reference Audio for Fine-grained Pronunciation in Zero-shot Text-to-Speech2 Jul 2026
- 2026OLIVE: View-Augmented Latent Prediction with Waveform Reconstruction for Speech SSL29 Jun 2026
- 2026Synthetic Audio Generation Framework for Air Traffic Control Speech Recognition19 Jun 2026
- 2026From A to B to A: Palindromic Zero-Shot Voice Conversion with Non-Parallel Data7 Jun 2026
- 2026Beyond Waveform Robustness: Robust Feature-Vocoder Adversarial Attacks on Automatic Speech Recognition4 Jun 2026
12 newest of 65 All 65 (JSON)