mlsanityData to 7 Oct 2026

Clinical Camel: An Open Expert-Level Medical Language Model with Dialogue-Based Knowledge Encoding

arXiv 2305.12031 ↗First posted 19 May 2023cs.CL cs.AIcited by 71

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Abstract (arXiv)

We present Clinical Camel, an open large language model (LLM) explicitly tailored for clinical research. Fine-tuned from LLaMA-2 using QLoRA, Clinical Camel achieves state-of-the-art performance across medical benchmarks among openly available medical LLMs. Leveraging efficient single-GPU training, Clinical Camel surpasses GPT-3.5 in five-shot evaluations on all assessed benchmarks, including 64.3% on the USMLE Sample Exam (compared to 58.5% for GPT-3.5), 77.9% on PubMedQA (compared to 60.2%), 60.7% on MedQA (compared to 53.6%), and 54.2% on MedMCQA (compared to 51.0%). In addition to these benchmarks, Clinical Camel demonstrates its broader capabilities, such as synthesizing plausible clinical notes. This work introduces dialogue-based knowledge encoding, a novel method to synthesize conversational data from dense medical texts. While benchmark results are encouraging, extensive and rigorous human evaluation across diverse clinical scenarios is imperative to ascertain safety before implementation. By openly sharing Clinical Camel, we hope to foster transparent and collaborative research, working towards the safe integration of LLMs within the healthcare domain. Significant challenges concerning reliability, bias, and the potential for outdated knowledge persist. Nonetheless, the transparency provided by an open approach reinforces the scientific rigor essential for future clinical applications.

Key facts. Cited by 71 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). Builds on 7 of its 15 references that are in the map. First posted on arXiv 19 May 2023.

Builds on

7 of 15 references.

References · 7

  1. 2022Survey of Hallucination in Natural Language Generationcited by 2,056
  2. 2020What Disease does this Patient Have? A Large-scale Open Domain Question Answering Dataset from Medical Examscited by 1,324
  3. 2022Mass-Editing Memory in a Transformercited by 976
  4. 2021Retrieval Augmentation Reduces Hallucination in Conversationcited by 691
  5. 2023Capabilities of GPT-4 on Medical Challenge Problemscited by 630
  6. 2023Towards Expert-Level Medical Question Answering with Large Language Modelscited by 382
  7. 2023MedAlpaca -- An Open-Source Collection of Medical Conversational AI Models and Training Datacited by 282

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Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2023: 2; 2024: 26; 2025: 24; 2026: 19.

71 papers.

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  1. 2023MEDITRON-70B: Scaling Medical Pretraining for Large Language Modelscited by 272
  2. 2024Capabilities of Gemini Models in Medicinecited by 231
  3. 2024ECG-FM: An Open Electrocardiogram Foundation Modelcited by 89
  4. 2024Med42-v2: A Suite of Clinical LLMscited by 89
  5. 2024Advancing Multimodal Medical Capabilities of Geminicited by 88
  6. 2025From AI for Science to Agentic Science: A Survey on Autonomous Scientific Discoverycited by 74
  7. 2024Health-LLM: Large Language Models for Health Prediction via Wearable Sensor Datacited by 65
  8. 2023MedAlign: A Clinician-Generated Dataset for Instruction Following with Electronic Medical Recordscited by 54
  9. 2024Med42 -- Evaluating Fine-Tuning Strategies for Medical LLMs: Full-Parameter vs. Parameter-Efficient Approachescited by 51
  10. 2024DALK: Dynamic Co-Augmentation of LLMs and KG to answer Alzheimer's Disease Questions with Scientific Literaturecited by 50
  11. 2025A Survey of Scientific Large Language Models: From Data Foundations to Agent Frontierscited by 34
  12. 2024Small Language Models Learn Enhanced Reasoning Skills from Medical Textbookscited by 30
38 more
  1. 2024Medical Adaptation of Large Language and Vision-Language Models: Are We Making Progress?cited by 28
  2. 2025ALFA: Aligning LLMs to Ask Good Questions A Case Study in Clinical Reasoningcited by 24
  3. 2025MedResearcher-R1: Expert-Level Medical Deep Researcher via A Knowledge-Informed Trajectory Synthesis Frameworkcited by 22
  4. 2024Biomedical Large Languages Models Seem not to be Superior to Generalist Models on Unseen Medical Datacited by 21
  5. 2024OpenMedLM: Prompt engineering can out-perform fine-tuning in medical question-answering with open-source large language modelscited by 20
  6. 2024Can Large Language Models abstract Medical Coded Language?cited by 20
  7. 2024Do Large Language Models Align with Core Mental Health Counseling Competencies?cited by 19
  8. 2024Hippocrates: An Open-Source Framework for Advancing Large Language Models in Healthcarecited by 15
  9. 2025Aligned but Blind: Alignment Increases Implicit Bias by Reducing Awareness of Racecited by 15
  10. 2024CancerLLM: A Large Language Model in Cancer Domaincited by 11
  11. 2024The Limited Impact of Medical Adaptation of Large Language and Vision-Language Modelscited by 9
  12. 2024BioMamba: Domain-Adaptive Biomedical Language Modelscited by 8
  13. 2025Citrus-V: Advancing Medical Foundation Models with Unified Medical Image Grounding for Clinical Reasoningcited by 8
  14. 2024CliBench: A Multifaceted and Multigranular Evaluation of Large Language Models for Clinical Decision Makingcited by 7
  15. 2024Beyond Fine-tuning: Unleashing the Potential of Continuous Pretraining for Clinical LLMscited by 7
  16. 2024Clinical Insights: A Comprehensive Review of Language Models in Medicinecited by 6
  17. 2025Exploring Efficiency Frontiers of Thinking Budget in Medical Reasoning: Scaling Laws between Computational Resources and Reasoning Qualitycited by 6
  18. 2025Clinical-R1: Empowering Large Language Models for Faithful and Comprehensive Reasoning with Clinical Objective Relative Policy Optimizationcited by 6
  19. 2024Classifying Cancer Stage with Open-Source Clinical Large Language Modelscited by 5
  20. 2025MedPAIR: Measuring Physicians and AI Relevance Alignment in Medical Question Answeringcited by 5
  21. 2024WangLab at MEDIQA-CORR 2024: Optimized LLM-based Programs for Medical Error Detection and Correctioncited by 4
  22. 2025Enhancing the Medical Context-Awareness Ability of LLMs via Multifaceted Self-Refinement Learningcited by 4
  23. 2025MediEval: A Unified Medical Benchmark for Patient-Contextual and Knowledge-Grounded Reasoning in LLMscited by 4
  24. 2026Health-ORSC-Bench: A Benchmark for Measuring Over-Refusal and Safety Completion in Health Contextcited by 4
  25. 2024Are Clinical T5 Models Better for Clinical Text?cited by 3
  26. 2025Evaluating LLMs Across Multi-Cognitive Levels: From Medical Knowledge Mastery to Scenario-Based Problem Solvingcited by 3
  27. 2025Quantized Large Language Models in Biomedical Natural Language Processing: Evaluation and Recommendationcited by 3
  28. 2024MedDoc-Bot: A Chat Tool for Comparative Analysis of Large Language Models in the Context of the Pediatric Hypertension Guidelinecited by 2
  29. 2025Collaboration among Multiple Large Language Models for Medical Question Answeringcited by 2
  30. 2025Retrieval-Augmented Framework for LLM-Based Clinical Decision Supportcited by 2
  31. 2026Emulating Clinician Cognition via Self-Evolving Deep Clinical Researchcited by 2
  32. 2026ProMedical: Hierarchical Fine-Grained Criteria Modeling for Medical LLM Alignment via Explicit Injectioncited by 2
  33. 2025Hengqin-RA-v1: Advanced Large Language Model for Diagnosis and Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis with Dataset based Traditional Chinese Medicinecited by 1
  34. 2025A Reward-driven Automated Webshell Malicious-code Generator for Red-teamingcited by 1
  35. 2025Reverse Physician-AI Relationship: Full-process Clinical Diagnosis Driven by a Large Language Modelcited by 1
  36. 2025Gene-R1: Reasoning with Data-Augmented Lightweight LLMs for Gene Set Analysiscited by 1
  37. 2025Advances in Large Language Models for Medicinecited by 1
  38. 2025Mitigating hallucinations in healthcare LLMs with granular fact-checking and domain-specific adaptationcited by 1

50 most cited of 71 All 71 (JSON)