Measuring Disentanglement: A Review of Metrics
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Abstract (arXiv)
Learning to disentangle and represent factors of variation in data is an important problem in AI. While many advances have been made to learn these representations, it is still unclear how to quantify disentanglement. While several metrics exist, little is known on their implicit assumptions, what they truly measure, and their limits. In consequence, it is difficult to interpret results when comparing different representations. In this work, we survey supervised disentanglement metrics and thoroughly analyze them. We propose a new taxonomy in which all metrics fall into one of three families: intervention-based, predictor-based and information-based. We conduct extensive experiments in which we isolate properties of disentangled representations, allowing stratified comparison along several axes. From our experiment results and analysis, we provide insights on relations between disentangled representation properties. Finally, we share guidelines on how to measure disentanglement.
Key facts. Cited by 69 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 16 Dec 2020.
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Citing papers per year: 2021: 6; 2022: 14; 2023: 18; 2024: 11; 2025: 12; 2026: 8.
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- 2022Disentangled Representation Learningcited by 111
- 2022GlanceNets: Interpretabile, Leak-proof Concept-based Modelscited by 73
- 2021Learning Disentangled Representations in the Imaging Domaincited by 46
- 2023Disentanglement via Latent Quantizationcited by 40
- 2023Generalizing Nonlinear ICA Beyond Structural Sparsitycited by 33
- 2023Towards Robust Metrics for Concept Representation Evaluationcited by 29
- 2021Interactive Disentanglement: Learning Concepts by Interacting with their Prototype Representationscited by 24
- 2023Beyond Statistical Similarity: Rethinking Metrics for Deep Generative Models in Engineering Designcited by 22
- 2023Interpretability is in the Mind of the Beholder: A Causal Framework for Human-interpretable Representation Learningcited by 22
- 2022Music Mixing Style Transfer: A Contrastive Learning Approach to Disentangle Audio Effectscited by 18
- 2024Non-negative Contrastive Learningcited by 18
- 20213D Shape Variational Autoencoder Latent Disentanglement via Mini-Batch Feature Swapping for Bodies and Facescited by 15
38 more
- 2022Learning Disentangled Representations for Natural Language Definitionscited by 12
- 2022Disentangling representations in Restricted Boltzmann Machines without adversariescited by 11
- 2021Disentanglement Analysis with Partial Information Decompositioncited by 9
- 2022Review of Disentanglement Approaches for Medical Applications -- Towards Solving the Gordian Knot of Generative Models in Healthcarecited by 9
- 2025Disentangled Source-Free Personalization for Facial Expression Recognition with Neutral Target Datacited by 9
- 2021Disentangled Generative Models for Robust Prediction of System Dynamicscited by 8
- 2024Disentangling representations of retinal images with generative modelscited by 8
- 2022Overlooked Implications of the Reconstruction Loss for VAE Disentanglementcited by 7
- 2022Gromov-Wasserstein Autoencoderscited by 7
- 2023Learning Disentangled Semantic Spaces of Explanations via Invertible Neural Networkscited by 6
- 2023Matching aggregate posteriors in the variational autoencodercited by 6
- 2025Superposition as Lossy Compression: Measure with Sparse Autoencoders and Connect to Adversarial Vulnerabilitycited by 6
- 2022Discovering the building blocks of dark matter halo density profiles with neural networkscited by 5
- 2024Constructive Approach to Bidirectional Influence between Qualia Structure and Language Emergencecited by 5
- 2022Unsupervised Disentanglement with Tensor Product Representations on the Toruscited by 4
- 2022Physics-informed Variational Autoencoders for Improved Robustness to Environmental Factors of Variationcited by 4
- 2023Disentanglement Learning via Topologycited by 4
- 2024SEREP: Semantic Facial Expression Representation for Robust In-the-Wild Capture and Retargetingcited by 4
- 2025Disentangled and Interpretable Multimodal Attention Fusion for Cancer Survival Predictioncited by 4
- 2021Evaluating Disentanglement of Structured Representationscited by 3
- 2022Disentangling Autoencoders (DAE)cited by 3
- 2023A Category-theoretical Meta-analysis of Definitions of Disentanglementcited by 3
- 2023Modularity in Deep Learning: A Surveycited by 3
- 2023Disentangling Learning Representations with Density Estimationcited by 2
- 2023Enriching Disentanglement: From Logical Definitions to Quantitative Metricscited by 2
- 2023C2VAE: Gaussian Copula-based VAE Differing Disentangled from Coupled Representations with Contrastive Posteriorcited by 2
- 2025Disentangled Latent Spaces for Reduced Order Models using Deterministic Autoencoderscited by 2
- 2025L-VAE: Variational Auto-Encoder with Learnable Beta for Disentangled Representationcited by 2
- 2026Evaluating the Interpretability of Sparse Autoencoders with Concept Annotationscited by 2
- 2022DOT-VAE: Disentangling One Factor at a Timecited by 1
- 2023Self-supervised Multi-view Disentanglement for Expansion of Visual Collectionscited by 1
- 2024Disentanglement with Factor Quantized Variational Autoencoderscited by 1
- 2024Transferring disentangled representations: bridging the gap between synthetic and real imagescited by 1
- 2025Disentanglement Beyond Static vs. Dynamic: A Benchmark and Evaluation Framework for Multi-Factor Sequential Representationscited by 1
- 2026Variational decomposition autoencoding improves disentanglement of latent representationscited by 1
- 2022FaIRCoP: Facial Image Retrieval using Contrastive Personalizationcited by 0
- 2023ProtoVAE: Prototypical Networks for Unsupervised Disentanglementcited by 0
- 2023Adaptive Contextual Perception: How to Generalize to New Backgrounds and Ambiguous Objectscited by 0
50 most cited of 69 All 69 (JSON)
- 2026Interpretable Feature Learning for RF Fingerprinting via Polar MKANs20 Aug 2026
- 2026Omni-modal decomposition autoencoders learn full-stack wearable disentangled representations7 Aug 2026
- 2026Evaluating the Interpretability of Sparse Autoencoders with Concept Annotations23 Jun 2026
- 2026Deep Attention Reweighting: Post-Hoc Attention-Based Feature Aggregation in CNNs for Disentangling Core and Spurious Features under Spurious Correlations20 May 2026
- 2026A framework for analyzing concept representations in neural models2 May 2026
- 2026Who Guards the Guardians? The Challenges of Evaluating Identifiability of Learned Representations27 Feb 2026
- 2026Mutual Information Collapse Explains Disentanglement Failure in β-VAEs9 Feb 2026
- 2026Variational decomposition autoencoding improves disentanglement of latent representations11 Jan 2026
- 2025Superposition as Lossy Compression: Measure with Sparse Autoencoders and Connect to Adversarial Vulnerability15 Dec 2025
- 2025Physically Interpretable Representation Learning with Gaussian Mixture Variational AutoEncoder (GM-VAE)26 Nov 2025
- 2025Disentanglement Beyond Static vs. Dynamic: A Benchmark and Evaluation Framework for Multi-Factor Sequential Representations20 Oct 2025
- 2025Disentanglement of Sources in a Multi-Stream Variational Autoencoder17 Oct 2025
38 more
- 2025Sparse deepfake detection promotes better disentanglement7 Oct 2025
- 2025GCVAMD: A Modified CausalVAE Model for Causal Age-related Macular Degeneration Risk Factor Detection and Prediction3 Oct 2025
- 2025L-VAE: Variational Auto-Encoder with Learnable Beta for Disentangled Representation3 Jul 2025
- 2025Comparing Lexical and Semantic Vector Search Methods When Classifying Medical Documents16 May 2025
- 2025Disentangled Source-Free Personalization for Facial Expression Recognition with Neutral Target Data26 Mar 2025
- 2025Disentangled and Interpretable Multimodal Attention Fusion for Cancer Survival Prediction20 Mar 2025
- 2025Disentangled Latent Spaces for Reduced Order Models using Deterministic Autoencoders20 Feb 2025
- 2025Disentanglement in Difference: Directly Learning Semantically Disentangled Representations by Maximizing Inter-Factor Differences5 Feb 2025
- 2024SEREP: Semantic Facial Expression Representation for Robust In-the-Wild Capture and Retargeting18 Dec 2024
- 2024PixLens: A Novel Framework for Disentangled Evaluation in Diffusion-Based Image Editing with Object Detection + SAM8 Oct 2024
- 2024Towards an Improved Metric for Evaluating Disentangled Representations4 Oct 2024
- 2024Transferring disentangled representations: bridging the gap between synthetic and real images26 Sep 2024
- 2024Disentanglement with Factor Quantized Variational Autoencoders23 Sep 2024
- 2024Constructive Approach to Bidirectional Influence between Qualia Structure and Language Emergence14 Sep 2024
- 2024Independence Constrained Disentangled Representation Learning from Epistemological Perspective4 Sep 2024
- 2024Rethinking Disentanglement under Dependent Factors of Variation13 Aug 2024
- 2024Explainable by-design Audio Segmentation through Non-Negative Matrix Factorization and Probing19 Jun 2024
- 2024Non-negative Contrastive Learning19 Mar 2024
- 2024Disentangling representations of retinal images with generative models29 Feb 2024
- 2023Matching aggregate posteriors in the variational autoencoder13 Nov 2023
- 2023Generalizing Nonlinear ICA Beyond Structural Sparsity1 Nov 2023
- 2023Breaking Down Word Semantics from Pre-trained Language Models through Layer-wise Dimension Selection8 Oct 2023
- 2023Modularity in Deep Learning: A Survey2 Oct 2023
- 2023C2VAE: Gaussian Copula-based VAE Differing Disentangled from Coupled Representations with Contrastive Posterior23 Sep 2023
- 2023Interpretability is in the Mind of the Beholder: A Causal Framework for Human-interpretable Representation Learning14 Sep 2023
- 2023Disentanglement Learning via Topology24 Aug 2023
- 2023Measuring the Effect of Causal Disentanglement on the Adversarial Robustness of Neural Network Models21 Aug 2023
- 2023Adaptive Contextual Perception: How to Generalize to New Backgrounds and Ambiguous Objects9 Jun 2023
- 2023Disentanglement via Latent Quantization28 May 2023
- 2023Enriching Disentanglement: From Logical Definitions to Quantitative Metrics19 May 2023
- 2023ProtoVAE: Prototypical Networks for Unsupervised Disentanglement16 May 2023
- 2023A Category-theoretical Meta-analysis of Definitions of Disentanglement11 May 2023
- 2023Learning Disentangled Semantic Spaces of Explanations via Invertible Neural Networks2 May 2023
- 2023Disentangling Learning Representations with Density Estimation8 Feb 2023
- 2023Beyond Statistical Similarity: Rethinking Metrics for Deep Generative Models in Engineering Design6 Feb 2023
- 2023Self-supervised Multi-view Disentanglement for Expansion of Visual Collections4 Feb 2023
- 2023Towards Robust Metrics for Concept Representation Evaluation25 Jan 2023
- 2022Disentangled Representation Learning21 Nov 2022
50 newest of 69 All 69 (JSON)
- 2022Disentangled Representation Learningcited by 111
- 2022GlanceNets: Interpretabile, Leak-proof Concept-based Modelscited by 73
- 2021Learning Disentangled Representations in the Imaging Domaincited by 46
- 2023Disentanglement via Latent Quantizationcited by 40
- 2023Generalizing Nonlinear ICA Beyond Structural Sparsitycited by 33
- 2023Towards Robust Metrics for Concept Representation Evaluationcited by 29
- 2021Interactive Disentanglement: Learning Concepts by Interacting with their Prototype Representationscited by 24
- 2023Interpretability is in the Mind of the Beholder: A Causal Framework for Human-interpretable Representation Learningcited by 22
- 2022Music Mixing Style Transfer: A Contrastive Learning Approach to Disentangle Audio Effectscited by 18
- 2024Non-negative Contrastive Learningcited by 18
- 20213D Shape Variational Autoencoder Latent Disentanglement via Mini-Batch Feature Swapping for Bodies and Facescited by 15
- 2022Learning Disentangled Representations for Natural Language Definitionscited by 12
12 most cited of 66 All 66 (JSON)
- 2026Interpretable Feature Learning for RF Fingerprinting via Polar MKANs20 Aug 2026
- 2026Omni-modal decomposition autoencoders learn full-stack wearable disentangled representations7 Aug 2026
- 2026Deep Attention Reweighting: Post-Hoc Attention-Based Feature Aggregation in CNNs for Disentangling Core and Spurious Features under Spurious Correlations20 May 2026
- 2026A framework for analyzing concept representations in neural models2 May 2026
- 2026Who Guards the Guardians? The Challenges of Evaluating Identifiability of Learned Representations27 Feb 2026
- 2026Mutual Information Collapse Explains Disentanglement Failure in β-VAEs9 Feb 2026
- 2026Variational decomposition autoencoding improves disentanglement of latent representations11 Jan 2026
- 2025Superposition as Lossy Compression: Measure with Sparse Autoencoders and Connect to Adversarial Vulnerability15 Dec 2025
- 2025Physically Interpretable Representation Learning with Gaussian Mixture Variational AutoEncoder (GM-VAE)26 Nov 2025
- 2025Disentanglement Beyond Static vs. Dynamic: A Benchmark and Evaluation Framework for Multi-Factor Sequential Representations20 Oct 2025
- 2025Disentanglement of Sources in a Multi-Stream Variational Autoencoder17 Oct 2025
- 2025Sparse deepfake detection promotes better disentanglement7 Oct 2025
12 newest of 66 All 66 (JSON)