Multi-Dimensional Gender Bias Classification
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Abstract (arXiv)
Machine learning models are trained to find patterns in data. NLP models can inadvertently learn socially undesirable patterns when training on gender biased text. In this work, we propose a general framework that decomposes gender bias in text along several pragmatic and semantic dimensions: bias from the gender of the person being spoken about, bias from the gender of the person being spoken to, and bias from the gender of the speaker. Using this fine-grained framework, we automatically annotate eight large scale datasets with gender information. In addition, we collect a novel, crowdsourced evaluation benchmark of utterance-level gender rewrites. Distinguishing between gender bias along multiple dimensions is important, as it enables us to train finer-grained gender bias classifiers. We show our classifiers prove valuable for a variety of important applications, such as controlling for gender bias in generative models, detecting gender bias in arbitrary text, and shed light on offensive language in terms of genderedness.
Key facts. Cited by 80 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 1 May 2020.
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Citing papers per year: 2021: 21; 2022: 11; 2023: 20; 2024: 16; 2025: 11; 2026: 1.
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- 2023Marked Personas: Using Natural Language Prompts to Measure Stereotypes in Language Modelscited by 204
- 2021Societal Biases in Language Generation: Progress and Challengescited by 201
- 2022BlenderBot 3: a deployed conversational agent that continually learns to responsibly engagecited by 197
- 2022"I'm sorry to hear that": Finding New Biases in Language Models with a Holistic Descriptor Datasetcited by 160
- 2021RedditBias: A Real-World Resource for Bias Evaluation and Debiasing of Conversational Language Modelscited by 149
- 2021Gender Bias in Machine Translationcited by 116
- 2021An Empirical Survey of the Effectiveness of Debiasing Techniques for Pre-trained Language Modelscited by 96
- 2021Anticipating Safety Issues in E2E Conversational AI: Framework and Toolingcited by 77
- 2022Theories of "Gender" in NLP Bias Researchcited by 62
- 2021Dynaboard: An Evaluation-As-A-Service Platform for Holistic Next-Generation Benchmarkingcited by 53
- 2022Perturbation Augmentation for Fairer NLPcited by 51
- 2025Creating General User Models from Computer Usecited by 44
38 more
- 2025Activation Oracles: Training and Evaluating LLMs as General-Purpose Activation Explainerscited by 41
- 2024Angry Men, Sad Women: Large Language Models Reflect Gendered Stereotypes in Emotion Attributioncited by 39
- 2021Uncovering Implicit Gender Bias in Narratives through Commonsense Inferencecited by 32
- 2023Uncovering and Quantifying Social Biases in Code Generationcited by 25
- 2023Zero-Shot Robustification of Zero-Shot Modelscited by 24
- 2021Hi, my name is Martha: Using names to measure and mitigate bias in generative dialogue modelscited by 23
- 2021A Word on Machine Ethics: A Response to Jiang et al. (2021)cited by 23
- 2021Rissanen Data Analysis: Examining Dataset Characteristics via Description Lengthcited by 22
- 2022Deep Learning on a Healthy Data Diet: Finding Important Examples for Fairnesscited by 21
- 2023Gender Bias in BERT -- Measuring and Analysing Biases through Sentiment Rating in a Realistic Downstream Classification Taskcited by 21
- 2021Investigating Failures of Automatic Translation in the Case of Unambiguous Gendercited by 20
- 2021Measuring Fairness with Biased Rulers: A Survey on Quantifying Biases in Pretrained Language Modelscited by 20
- 2024Cultural Commonsense Knowledge for Intercultural Dialoguescited by 20
- 2024SANER: Annotation-free Societal Attribute Neutralizer for Debiasing CLIPcited by 19
- 2023Bias in News Summarization: Measures, Pitfalls and Corporacited by 18
- 2021Quantifying Gender Bias Towards Politicians in Cross-Lingual Language Modelscited by 15
- 2023Unraveling Downstream Gender Bias from Large Language Models: A Study on AI Educational Writing Assistancecited by 15
- 2024Gender Bias in Decision-Making with Large Language Models: A Study of Relationship Conflictscited by 15
- 2021Adversarial Scrubbing of Demographic Information for Text Classificationcited by 14
- 2021The Arabic Parallel Gender Corpus 2.0: Extensions and Analysescited by 12
- 2023Towards Auditing Large Language Models: Improving Text-based Stereotype Detectioncited by 12
- 2023Tackling Bias in Pre-trained Language Models: Current Trends and Under-represented Societiescited by 11
- 2023Are Your Explanations Reliable? Investigating the Stability of LIME in Explaining Text Classifiers by Marrying XAI and Adversarial Attackcited by 10
- 2023This Prompt is Measuring <MASK>: Evaluating Bias Evaluation in Language Modelscited by 9
- 2022DataLab: A Platform for Data Analysis and Interventioncited by 8
- 2023Mitigating Bias for Question Answering Models by Tracking Bias Influencecited by 8
- 2022Generating Full Length Wikipedia Biographies: The Impact of Gender Bias on the Retrieval-Based Generation of Women Biographiescited by 7
- 2024'Since Lawyers are Males..': Examining Implicit Gender Bias in Hindi Language Generation by LLMscited by 7
- 2021Personalized Benchmarking with the Ludwig Benchmarking Toolkitcited by 6
- 2022Mind Your Bias: A Critical Review of Bias Detection Methods for Contextual Language Modelscited by 6
- 2024The Devil is in the Neurons: Interpreting and Mitigating Social Biases in Pre-trained Language Modelscited by 6
- 2025Domain Regeneration: How well do LLMs match syntactic properties of text domains?cited by 6
- 2021Automatically Exposing Problems with Neural Dialog Modelscited by 5
- 2021Quantifying Gender Biases Towards Politicians on Redditcited by 5
- 2022Measuring Fairness of Text Classifiers via Prediction Sensitivitycited by 5
- 2022Bridging Fairness and Environmental Sustainability in Natural Language Processingcited by 5
- 2023Transcending the "Male Code": Implicit Masculine Biases in NLP Contextscited by 5
- 2025Assumed Identities: Quantifying Gender Bias in Machine Translation of Gender-Ambiguous Occupational Termscited by 5
50 most cited of 80 All 80 (JSON)
- 2026A Cross-lingual Comparison of Human and Classification Model Entrainment Behavior in Code-switched Speech Settings28 Jul 2026
- 2025Activation Oracles: Training and Evaluating LLMs as General-Purpose Activation Explainers17 Dec 2025
- 2025Characterizing Selective Refusal Bias in Large Language Models31 Oct 2025
- 2025I Think, Therefore I Am Under-Qualified? A Benchmark for Evaluating Linguistic Shibboleth Detection in LLM Hiring Evaluations6 Aug 2025
- 2025AdvSumm: Adversarial Training for Bias Mitigation in Text Summarization6 Jun 2025
- 2025From n-gram to Attention: How Model Architectures Learn and Propagate Bias in Language Modeling18 May 2025
- 2025The Ripple Effect: On Unforeseen Complications of Backdoor Attacks16 May 2025
- 2025Creating General User Models from Computer Use16 May 2025
- 2025Domain Regeneration: How well do LLMs match syntactic properties of text domains?12 May 2025
- 2025Investigating the Capabilities and Limitations of Machine Learning for Identifying Bias in English Language Data with Information and Heritage Professionals1 Apr 2025
- 2025Assumed Identities: Quantifying Gender Bias in Machine Translation of Gender-Ambiguous Occupational Terms6 Mar 2025
- 2025Towards Robust and Accurate Stability Estimation of Local Surrogate Models in Text-based Explainable AI3 Jan 2025
38 more
- 2024Gender Bias in Decision-Making with Large Language Models: A Study of Relationship Conflicts14 Oct 2024
- 2024Divided by discipline? A systematic literature review on the quantification of online sexism and misogyny using a semi-automated approach30 Sep 2024
- 2024'Since Lawyers are Males..': Examining Implicit Gender Bias in Hindi Language Generation by LLMs20 Sep 2024
- 2024NoMatterXAI: Generating "No Matter What" Alterfactual Examples for Explaining Black-Box Text Classification Models20 Aug 2024
- 2024SANER: Annotation-free Societal Attribute Neutralizer for Debiasing CLIP19 Aug 2024
- 2024fairBERTs: Erasing Sensitive Information Through Semantic and Fairness-aware Perturbations11 Jul 2024
- 2024The Effect of Similarity Measures on Accurate Stability Estimates for Local Surrogate Models in Text-based Explainable AI22 Jun 2024
- 2024The Devil is in the Neurons: Interpreting and Mitigating Social Biases in Pre-trained Language Models14 Jun 2024
- 2024OTTER: Effortless Label Distribution Adaptation of Zero-shot Models12 Apr 2024
- 2024FairPair: A Robust Evaluation of Biases in Language Models through Paired Perturbations9 Apr 2024
- 2024Stereotype Detection in LLMs: A Multiclass, Explainable, and Benchmark-Driven Approach2 Apr 2024
- 2024Can AI Outperform Human Experts in Creating Social Media Creatives?19 Mar 2024
- 2024Angry Men, Sad Women: Large Language Models Reflect Gendered Stereotypes in Emotion Attribution5 Mar 2024
- 2024MAGPIE: Multi-Task Media-Bias Analysis Generalization for Pre-Trained Identification of Expressions27 Feb 2024
- 2024MultiContrievers: Analysis of Dense Retrieval Representations24 Feb 2024
- 2024Cultural Commonsense Knowledge for Intercultural Dialogues16 Feb 2024
- 2023Tackling Bias in Pre-trained Language Models: Current Trends and Under-represented Societies3 Dec 2023
- 2023PEFTDebias : Capturing debiasing information using PEFTs1 Dec 2023
- 2023Towards Auditing Large Language Models: Improving Text-based Stereotype Detection23 Nov 2023
- 2023Unraveling Downstream Gender Bias from Large Language Models: A Study on AI Educational Writing Assistance6 Nov 2023
- 2023Divide et Impera: Multi-Transformer Architectures for Complex NLP-Tasks25 Oct 2023
- 2023A Novel Information-Theoretic Objective to Disentangle Representations for Fair Classification21 Oct 2023
- 2023Mitigating Bias for Question Answering Models by Tracking Bias Influence13 Oct 2023
- 2023Hexa: Self-Improving for Knowledge-Grounded Dialogue System10 Oct 2023
- 2023Bias in News Summarization: Measures, Pitfalls and Corpora14 Sep 2023
- 2023Challenges in Annotating Datasets to Quantify Bias in Under-represented Society11 Sep 2023
- 2023Zero-Shot Robustification of Zero-Shot Models8 Sep 2023
- 2023Gender Bias in BERT -- Measuring and Analysing Biases through Sentiment Rating in a Realistic Downstream Classification Task27 Jun 2023
- 2023Marked Personas: Using Natural Language Prompts to Measure Stereotypes in Language Models29 May 2023
- 2023Uncovering and Quantifying Social Biases in Code Generation24 May 2023
- 2023Assessing Linguistic Generalisation in Language Models: A Dataset for Brazilian Portuguese23 May 2023
- 2023This Prompt is Measuring <MASK>: Evaluating Bias Evaluation in Language Models22 May 2023
- 2023Are Your Explanations Reliable? Investigating the Stability of LIME in Explaining Text Classifiers by Marrying XAI and Adversarial Attack21 May 2023
- 2023"I'm" Lost in Translation: Pronoun Missteps in Crowdsourced Data Sets22 Apr 2023
- 2023Transcending the "Male Code": Implicit Masculine Biases in NLP Contexts22 Apr 2023
- 2023Safer Conversational AI as a Source of User Delight18 Apr 2023
- 2022Undesirable Biases in NLP: Addressing Challenges of Measurement24 Nov 2022
- 2022Deep Learning on a Healthy Data Diet: Finding Important Examples for Fairness20 Nov 2022
50 newest of 80 All 80 (JSON)
- 2023Marked Personas: Using Natural Language Prompts to Measure Stereotypes in Language Modelscited by 204
- 2021Societal Biases in Language Generation: Progress and Challengescited by 201
- 2022BlenderBot 3: a deployed conversational agent that continually learns to responsibly engagecited by 197
- 2022"I'm sorry to hear that": Finding New Biases in Language Models with a Holistic Descriptor Datasetcited by 160
- 2021RedditBias: A Real-World Resource for Bias Evaluation and Debiasing of Conversational Language Modelscited by 149
- 2021Gender Bias in Machine Translationcited by 116
- 2021An Empirical Survey of the Effectiveness of Debiasing Techniques for Pre-trained Language Modelscited by 96
- 2021Anticipating Safety Issues in E2E Conversational AI: Framework and Toolingcited by 77
- 2022Theories of "Gender" in NLP Bias Researchcited by 62
- 2021Dynaboard: An Evaluation-As-A-Service Platform for Holistic Next-Generation Benchmarkingcited by 53
- 2022Perturbation Augmentation for Fairer NLPcited by 51
- 2025Creating General User Models from Computer Usecited by 44
12 most cited of 77 All 77 (JSON)
- 2026A Cross-lingual Comparison of Human and Classification Model Entrainment Behavior in Code-switched Speech Settings28 Jul 2026
- 2025Activation Oracles: Training and Evaluating LLMs as General-Purpose Activation Explainers17 Dec 2025
- 2025AdvSumm: Adversarial Training for Bias Mitigation in Text Summarization6 Jun 2025
- 2025From n-gram to Attention: How Model Architectures Learn and Propagate Bias in Language Modeling18 May 2025
- 2025The Ripple Effect: On Unforeseen Complications of Backdoor Attacks16 May 2025
- 2025Creating General User Models from Computer Use16 May 2025
- 2025Domain Regeneration: How well do LLMs match syntactic properties of text domains?12 May 2025
- 2025Investigating the Capabilities and Limitations of Machine Learning for Identifying Bias in English Language Data with Information and Heritage Professionals1 Apr 2025
- 2025Assumed Identities: Quantifying Gender Bias in Machine Translation of Gender-Ambiguous Occupational Terms6 Mar 2025
- 2025Towards Robust and Accurate Stability Estimation of Local Surrogate Models in Text-based Explainable AI3 Jan 2025
- 2024Gender Bias in Decision-Making with Large Language Models: A Study of Relationship Conflicts14 Oct 2024
- 2024Divided by discipline? A systematic literature review on the quantification of online sexism and misogyny using a semi-automated approach30 Sep 2024
12 newest of 77 All 77 (JSON)