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Examining Gender Bias in Languages with Grammatical Gender

arXiv 1909.02224 ↗First posted 5 Sep 2019cs.CLcited by 40

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Abstract (arXiv)

Recent studies have shown that word embeddings exhibit gender bias inherited from the training corpora. However, most studies to date have focused on quantifying and mitigating such bias only in English. These analyses cannot be directly extended to languages that exhibit morphological agreement on gender, such as Spanish and French. In this paper, we propose new metrics for evaluating gender bias in word embeddings of these languages and further demonstrate evidence of gender bias in bilingual embeddings which align these languages with English. Finally, we extend an existing approach to mitigate gender bias in word embeddings under both monolingual and bilingual settings. Experiments on modified Word Embedding Association Test, word similarity, word translation, and word pair translation tasks show that the proposed approaches effectively reduce the gender bias while preserving the utility of the embeddings.

Key facts. Cited by 40 papers in the map (data through 7 Oct 2026). First posted on arXiv 5 Sep 2019.

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Cited by year (2026 to 7 Oct)

Citing papers per year: 2021: 11; 2022: 13; 2023: 4; 2024: 4; 2025: 5; 2026: 3.

40 papers.

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  1. 2021Gender Bias in Machine Translationcited by 116
  2. 2021An Empirical Survey of the Effectiveness of Debiasing Techniques for Pre-trained Language Modelscited by 96
  3. 2021A Survey on Gender Bias in Natural Language Processingcited by 89
  4. 2022Theories of "Gender" in NLP Bias Researchcited by 62
  5. 2022Gender Bias in Masked Language Models for Multiple Languagescited by 60
  6. 2023Comparing Biases and the Impact of Multilingual Training across Multiple Languagescited by 36
  7. 2024Gender Bias in Large Language Models across Multiple Languagescited by 35
  8. 2021Lawyers are Dishonest? Quantifying Representational Harms in Commonsense Knowledge Resourcescited by 30
  9. 2021Socially Aware Bias Measurements for Hindi Language Representationscited by 29
  10. 2023Sociodemographic Bias in Language Models: A Survey and Forward Pathcited by 27
  11. 2022Under the Morphosyntactic Lens: A Multifaceted Evaluation of Gender Bias in Speech Translationcited by 23
  12. 2021Evaluating Gender Bias in Hindi-English Machine Translationcited by 19
28 more
  1. 2023CORGI-PM: A Chinese Corpus For Gender Bias Probing and Mitigationcited by 19
  2. 2023Fairness in Language Models Beyond English: Gaps and Challengescited by 16
  3. 2021Assessing the Reliability of Word Embedding Gender Bias Measurescited by 14
  4. 2022Mapping the Multilingual Margins: Intersectional Biases of Sentiment Analysis Systems in English, Spanish, and Arabiccited by 13
  5. 2024Do Multilingual Large Language Models Mitigate Stereotype Bias?cited by 13
  6. 2022Analyzing Gender Representation in Multilingual Modelscited by 10
  7. 2021WordBias: An Interactive Visual Tool for Discovering Intersectional Biases Encoded in Word Embeddingscited by 8
  8. 2021Debiasing Multilingual Word Embeddings: A Case Study of Three Indian Languagescited by 8
  9. 2022HERB: Measuring Hierarchical Regional Bias in Pre-trained Language Modelscited by 8
  10. 2021Evaluating Metrics for Bias in Word Embeddingscited by 7
  11. 2022Towards Robust NLG Bias Evaluation with Syntactically-diverse Promptscited by 7
  12. 2022Mitigating Gender Stereotypes in Hindi and Marathicited by 6
  13. 2021SWEAT: Scoring Polarization of Topics across Different Corporacited by 5
  14. 2022Measuring Gender Bias in Word Embeddings of Gendered Languages Requires Disentangling Grammatical Gender Signalscited by 5
  15. 2025Assumed Identities: Quantifying Gender Bias in Machine Translation of Gender-Ambiguous Occupational Termscited by 5
  16. 2022Undesirable Biases in NLP: Addressing Challenges of Measurementcited by 4
  17. 2022Efficient Gender Debiasing of Pre-trained Indic Language Modelscited by 3
  18. 2022A methodology to characterize bias and harmful stereotypes in natural language processing in Latin Americacited by 2
  19. 2024STOP! Benchmarking Large Language Models with Sensitivity Testing on Offensive Progressionscited by 2
  20. 2025Bias Beyond English: Evaluating Social Bias and Debiasing Methods in a Low-Resource Settingcited by 1
  21. 2025Iterative Multilingual Spectral Attribute Erasurecited by 1
  22. 2025GG-BBQ: German Gender Bias Benchmark for Question Answeringcited by 1
  23. 2022The SAME score: Improved cosine based bias score for word embeddingscited by 0
  24. 2024A Study on Bias Detection and Classification in Natural Language Processingcited by 0
  25. 2025Overview of the NLPCC 2025 Shared Task: Gender Bias Mitigation Challengecited by 0
  26. 2026Is She Even Relevant? When BERT Ignores Explicit Gender Cuescited by 0
  27. 2026Estimating Grammatical Gender Directions in Contextual Embeddings under Controlled and Natural Contextscited by 0
  28. 2026WinoQueer-NL: Assessing Bias in Dutch Language Models toward LGBTQ+ Identitiescited by 0